【文章內容簡介】 hat we can most fruitfully investigate the process of munication in America or the world by the methods most appropriate to research on the lower animals or on single physical organisms. In parative psychology when we describe some part of the surroundings of a rat, cat, or monkey as a stimulus (that is, as part of the environment reaching the attention of the animal), we cannot ask the rat。 we use other means of inferring perception. When human beings are our objects of investigation, we can interview the great talking animal. (This is not that we take everything at face value. Sometimes we forecast the opposite of what the person says he intends to do. In this case, we depend on other indications, both verbal and nonverbal.) In the study of living forms, it is rewarding, as we have said, to look at them as modifiers of the environment in the process of gratifying needs, and hence of maintaining a steady state of internal equilibrium. Food, sex, and other activities which involve the environment can be examined on a parative basis. Since human beings exhibit speech reactions, we can investigate many more relationships than in the nonhuman species (p. 90). Allowing for the data furnished by speech (and other municative acts), we can investigate human society in terms of values。 that is, in reference to categories of relationships that are recognized objects of gratification. In America, for example, it requires no elaborate technique of study to discern that power and respect are values. We can demonstrate this by listening to testimony, and by watching what is done when opportunity is afforded. It is possible to establish a list of values current in any group chosen for investigation. Further than this, we can discover the rank order in which these values are sought. We can rank the members of the group according to their positions in relation to the values. So far as industrial civilization is concerned, we have no hesitation in saying that power, wealth, respect, wellbeing, and enlightenment are among the values. If we stop with this list, which is not exhaustive, we can describe on the basis of available knowledge (fragmentary though it may often be) the social structure of most of the world. Since values are not equally distributed, the social structure reveals more or less concentration of relatively abundant shares of power, wealth, and other values in a few hands. In some places this concentration is passed on from generation to generation, forming castes rather than a mobile society. In every society the values are shaped and distributed according to more or less distinctive patterns (institutions). The institutions include munications which are invoked in support of the network as a whole. Such munications are the ideology。 and in relation to power we can differentiate the political doctrine, the political formula, and the miranda. These are illustrated in the United States by the doctrine of individualism, the paragraphs of the Constitution, which are the formula, and the ceremonies and legends of public life, which prise the Miranda (p. 91). The ideology is municated to the rising generation through such specialized agencies as the home and school. Ideology is only part of the myths of any given society. There may be counterideologies directed against the dominant doctrine, formula, and miranda. Today the power structure of world politics is deeply affected by ideological conflict, and by the role of two giant powers, the United States and Russia. The ruling elites view one another as potential enemies, not only in the sense that interstate differences may be settled by war, but in the more urgent sense that the ideology of the other may appeal to disaffected elements at home and weaken the internal power position of each ruling class. Social conflict and municationUnder the circumstances, one ruling element is especially alert to the other, and relies upon munication as a means of preserving power. One function of munication, therefore, is to provide intelligence about what the other elite is doing, and about its strength. Fearful that intelligence channels will be controlled by the other, in order to withhold and distort, there is a tendency to resort to secret surveillance. Hence international espionage is intensified above its usual level in peacetime. Moreover, efforts are made to black out the self in order to counteract the scrutiny of the potential enemy.In addition, munication is employed affirmatively for the purpose of establishing contact with audiences within the frontiers of the other power. These varied activities are manifested in the use of open and secret agents to scrutinize the other, in counterintelligence work, in censorship and travel restriction, in broadcasting and other informational activities across frontiers. Ruling elites are also sensitized to potential threats in the internal environment. Besides using open sources of information, secret measures are also adopted. Precautions are taken to impose security upon as many policy matters as possible. At the same time, the ideology of the elite is reaffirmed, and counterideologies are suppressed (p. 92). The processes here sketched run parallel to phenomena to be observed throughout the animal kingdom. Specialized agencies are used to keep aware of threats and opportunities in the external environment. The parallels include the surveillance exercised over the internal environment, since among the lower animals some herd leaders sometimes give evidence of fearing attack on two fronts, internal and external。 they keep an uneasy eye on both environments. As a means of preventing surveillance by an enemy, wellknown devices are at the disposal of certain species, ., the squid39。s use of a liquid fog screen, the protective coloration of the chameleon. However, there appears to be no correlate of the disti