【正文】 (continued) ? Diffusion of Responsibility – The ability of group members to share the burden of the negative consequences of a poor decision. Copyright 169。 and Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 56 Groupthink ? The capacity for group pressure to damage the mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment of decisionmaking groups. ? Unanimous acceptance of decisions is stressed over quality of decisions. ? Victims of groupthink operate in an atmosphere of unreality that should lead to lowquality decisions. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 60 How Do Groups Handle Risk? ? Do groups make decisions that are more or less risky than those of individuals? ? Will the degree of risk assumed by the group simply equal the average risk preferred by its individual members? ? Group decisions can involve risky and conservative shifts, and they occur in a wide variety of settings. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 64 How Do Groups Handle Risk? (continued) ? Two main factors explain the occurrence of risky and conservative shifts: – Group discussion generates ideas and arguments that individual members have not considered before. – Group members try to present themselves as basically similar to other members but “even better.” Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 68 Stimulating and Managing Controversy ? There are a variety of ways to stimulate controversy in decisionmaking groups: – Incorporating members with diverse ideas and backgrounds. – Forming subgroups to “tear the problem apart.” – Establishing norms that favour the open sharing of information. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 72 Electronic Brainstorming ? Electronic brainstorming uses putermediated technology to improve traditional brainstorming practices. ? What happens if people brainstorm as an electronic group? ? Once over the size of two members, electronic brainstorming groups perform better than facetoface groups in terms of both quantity and quality of ideas. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 76 The Delphi Technique (continued) ? The heart of Delphi is a series of questionnaires sent to respondents. ? The main disadvantage is the rather lengthy time frame involved in the questionnaire phases. ? Its effectiveness depends on the writing skills of respondents and their interest in the problem. ? It is an efficient method of pooling a large number of expert judgments while avoiding the problems of conformity and domination that occur in interacting groups. Copyright 169。 :58:1211:58Mar235Mar23 1故人江海別，幾度隔山川。 2023年 3月 上午 11時 58分 :58March 5, 2023 1行動出成果，工作出財富。 11:58:1211:58:1211:583/5/2023 11:58:12 AM 1成功就是日復(fù)一日那一點點小小努力的積累。 2023年 3月 5日星期日 上午 11時 58分 12秒 11:58: 1楚塞三湘接，荊門九派通。 , March 5, 2023 閱讀一切好書如同和過去最杰出的人談話。勝人者有力，自勝者強。 2023年 3月 5日星期日 11時 58分 12秒 11:58:125 March 2023 1一個人即使已登上頂峰，也仍要自強不息。 2023年 3月 5日星期日 上午 11時 58分 12秒 11:58: 1最具挑戰(zhàn)性的挑戰(zhàn)莫過于提升自我。 :58:1211:58Mar235Mar23 1越是無能的人，越喜歡挑剔別人的錯兒。 2023年 3月 5日星期日 11時 58分 12秒 11:58:125 March 2023 1空山新雨后，天氣晚來秋。 11:58:1211:58:1211:58Sunday, March 5, 2023 1不知香積寺，數(shù)里入云峰。 上午 11時 58分 12秒 上午 11時 58分 11:58: 沒有失敗，只有暫時停止成功！。 :58:1211:58:12March 5, 2023 1他鄉(xiāng)生白發(fā)，舊國見青山。 , March 5, 2023 雨中黃葉樹，燈下白頭人。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 74 Nominal Group Technique (NGT) ? A structured group decisionmaking technique in which ideas are generated without group interaction and then systematically evaluated by the group. ? NGT separates the generation of ideas from their evaluation. ? The main disadvantage is the time and resources required to assemble the group for facetoface interaction. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 70 Traditional Brainstorming ? Brainstorming is an attempt to increase the number of creative solution alternatives to problems by focusing on idea generation rather than evaluation. ? It was originally conceived as a group technique. ? Research has shown that individuals working alone tend to generate more ideas than when in groups. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 66 Improving Decision Making in Organizations ? Organizational decision making can improve if decision makers follow more closely the rational decisionmaking model. ? Each of the following techniques has this goal: – Training discussion leaders – Stimulating and managing controversy – Traditional and electronic brainstorming – Nominal group technique – The Delphi technique Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 62 How Do Groups Handle Risk? (continued) ? A key factor appears to be the initial positions of the group members before they discuss the problem. ? Group discussion seems to polarize or exaggerate the initial position of the group: – Somewhat conservative members exhibit a conservative shift when they discuss the problem. – Somewhat risky members exhibit a risky shift after discussion. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 58 Groupthink Symptoms ? Illusion of invulnerability ? Rationalization ? Illusion of morality ? Stereotypes of outsiders ? Pressure for conformity ? Selfcensorship ? Illusion of unanimity ? Mindguards Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 54 Disadvantages of Group Decision Making ? Time – The time it takes to make a decision increases with group size. ? Conflict – Decision quality can take a back seat to political wrangling and infighting. – Groups will make better decisions when members feel psychologically safe. Copyright 169。 – some division of labour can occur。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 49 G