【正文】 nued) ? The perfectly rational decision maker can evaluate alternative solutions against a single criterion – economic gain. ? The decision maker who is bounded by reality might have to factor in other criteria such as political acceptability. ? The decision maker working under bounded rationality frequently “satisfices” rather than maximizes. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 34 Escalation of Commitment ? People often “throw good resources after bad,” acting as if they can recoup sunk costs. ? This process is known as escalation of mitment to an apparently failing course of action. ? Escalation of mitment refers to the tendency to invest additional resources in an apparently failing course of action. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 42 How Emotion and Mood Affect Decision Making (continued) ? Research on mood and decision making reveals that: – People in a positive (negative) mood tend to remember positive (negative) information. – People in a positive (negative) mood tend to evaluate objects, people, and events more positively (negatively). Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 50 Why Use Groups? ? Decision Quality – Groups or teams should make higherquality decisions than individuals. ? Decision Acceptance and Commitment – A group decision will be more acceptable to those involved. – This is especially important in getting a decision implemented. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 55 Disadvantages of Group Decision Making (continued) ? Domination – When meetings are dominated by a single individual or a small coalition. – Domination is not likely to lead to group acceptance and mitment. – If the dominant person is misinformed, the group decision is likely to be ineffective. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 63 The Dynamics of Risky and Conservative Shifts for Two Groups Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 71 Traditional Brainstorming (continued) ? Brainstorming can provide advantages beyond the mere number of ideas generated. ? It has been shown to result in creative and business advantages. ? At IDEO, brainstorming shapes anizational culture, helps retain good talent, and contributes to client confidence. Copyright 169。 11:58:1211:58:1211:583/5/2023 11:58:12 AM 1以我獨(dú)沈久，愧君相見頻。 , March 5, 2023 很多事情努力了未必有結(jié)果，但是不努力卻什么改變也沒有。 上午 11時(shí) 58分 12秒 上午 11時(shí) 58分 11:58: 楊柳散和風(fēng)，青山澹吾慮。 2023年 3月 上午 11時(shí) 58分 :58March 5, 2023 1業(yè)余生活要有意義，不要越軌。 11:58:1211:58:1211:58Sunday, March 5, 2023 1知人者智，自知者明。 :58:1211:58:12March 5, 2023 1意志堅(jiān)強(qiáng)的人能把世界放在手中像泥塊一樣任意揉捏。 2023年 3月 5日星期日 上午 11時(shí) 58分 12秒 11:58: 1比不了得就不比，得不到的就不要。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 75 The Delphi Technique ? A method of pooling a large number of expert judgments by using a series of increasingly refined questionnaires. ? It relies solely on a nominal group – participants do not engage in facetoface interaction. ? Experts provide anizational decision makers with information but do not participate in the actual decision making. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 67 Training Discussion Leaders ? The actions of discussion leaders can “make or break” the decision. ? The use of roleplaying training to develop the leadership skills of discussion leaders can increase the quality and acceptance of group decisions. ? People learn a variety of skills in discussion leader training. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 59 What Can Prevent Groupthink? ? Leaders must avoid exerting undue pressure for a particular decision oute and concentrate on good decision processes. ? Leaders should establish norms that encourage and reward responsible dissent. ? Outside experts should be brought in from time to time to challenge the group’s views. Copyright 169。 – memory for facts is an important issue。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 46 Rational Decision Making – A Summary (continued) ? Organizational decision makers often follow the rational model when they agree about the goals they are pursuing. ? Organizational decision makers often shortcircuit the rational model. ? True experts in a field often shortcircuit the rational model, using their intuitive knowledge base to skip steps logically. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 38 Preventing Escalation of Commitment (continued) ? Place more emphasis in evaluating managers on how they made decisions and less on decision outes. ? Separate initial and subsequent decision making. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 30 Solution Implementation ? Decision makers are often dependent on others to implement their decisions, and it might be difficult to anticipate their ability or motivation to do so. ? Implementation problems often occur when those who must implement a decision are not the ones who made the decision. ? Crossfunctional teams can help prevent these kinds of implementation problems. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 22 Too Much Information ? Too much information can also damage the quality of decisions. ? Information overload is the reception of more information than is necessary to make effective decisions. ? Information overload can lead to errors, omissions, delays, and cutting corners. ? Decision makers seem to think that more is better. Copyright 169。 2023 Pearson Canada Inc. Chapter 11 / Slide 14 Bounded Rationality ? Herbert Simon recognized that the rational characteristics of Economic Person do not exist in real decision makers. ? He suggested that managers use bounded rationality. ? Bounded rationality