【正文】 lonies when all the individual colonies on a petridish merge together to form a a field or mat of bacteria.Eukaryotic cellEukaryotic microorganisms（真核微生物概念）： The eukaryotic microorganisms is not a natural monophyletic taxon. They have the nuclear membrane coating a cell nucleus, carry out mitosis, and have mitochondria in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic microorganisms include : fungi, microalgae and protozoa.Fungi differ from plants in two quite fundamental respects: 223。 Class224。 革蘭氏陰性菌（G）基體由L、P、S、M四個(gè)環(huán)構(gòu)成。試述革蘭氏陽(yáng)性菌和革蘭氏陰性菌肽聚糖單體的異同點(diǎn)。具體而言：通過(guò)初染和媒染后，在細(xì)胞膜內(nèi)形成了不溶于水的結(jié)晶與碘的復(fù)合物。 they are intracellular parasites of animals, plants, or bacteria. 1, The Prokaryotes can be divided into two kingdoms, Bacteria and Archaea. The classification was first proposed by Woese based on the differences in 16S rRNA sequence.2, Prokaryotic microorganism（原核微生物）: It is an singlecelled organism which doesn’t have a nuclear membrane outside the cell nucleus and only has the bare DNA called as the nuclear area.3, Many bacteria are shaped like long rods twisted into spirals or helices。 they are called spirilla （螺旋菌）if rigid and spirochetes (螺旋體) when flexible.4, Capsules (莢膜) and slime layers (粘液層) usually are posed of polysaccharides (多糖), but they may be constructed of other materials.5, Gram staining procedure(革蘭氏染色的步驟)In the first step of the Gramstaining procedure, the smear is stained with the basic dye crystal violet, the primary stain. It is followed by treatment with an iodine solution functioning as a mordant. That is, the iodine increases the interaction between the cell and the dye so that the cell is stained more strongly. The smear is next decolorized by washing with ethanol or acetone. This step generates the differential aspect of the Gram stain。G+菌由于細(xì)胞壁厚，肽聚糖網(wǎng)層次多而交聯(lián)緊密，并且不含類脂，故以乙醇脫色時(shí)不會(huì)溶出縫隙，反而使肽聚糖網(wǎng)孔收縮，使染料滯留在細(xì)胞壁內(nèi)而使其染上紫色；反之，G菌由于細(xì)胞壁薄，外膜層類脂含量高，肽聚糖層薄和交聯(lián)度差，當(dāng)遇到乙醇時(shí)，以類脂為主的的外膜迅速溶解，這時(shí)薄而松散的肽聚糖網(wǎng)不能阻擋結(jié)晶紫與碘的復(fù)合物的溶出，故細(xì)胞退成無(wú)色。（1）四肽尾的第3個(gè)氨基酸不是Llys，而是被內(nèi)消旋二氨基二酸（mDAP）所代替（2）沒(méi)有特殊的肽橋，其前后兩個(gè)單體間的連接僅通過(guò)甲四肽尾的第4個(gè)氨基酸DAla的羧基與乙四肽尾的第3個(gè)氨基酸mDAP的氨基直接相連。 革蘭氏陰性菌（G+）基體由2個(gè)環(huán)構(gòu)成。Order224。 Plants obtain energy from the sun, fungi do not。③ Vegetative bodies are usually developing filamentous and branched structure as well as unicell。⑦ More living adaptively in the land .Some fungi have long, branched, threadlike filaments called hyphae (菌絲), which aggregate together to form a tangled mycelium (菌絲體). In some fungi the hyphae have crosswalls called septa(橫隔) separating cells, which may nevertheless be joined by one or more pores, which permit cytoplasmic streaming, a form of internal transport.Fungi are categorized into phyla (divisions) based on the type of structures produced during sexual reproduction. (4) Basidiomycota （擔(dān)子菌亞門，高等真菌） Haustorium（吸器） Life cycle of fungi:In general, the life cycle involves the fusion of hyphae from two individuals, forming a mycelium that contains haploid nuclei of both individuals. The fusion of hyphae is called plasmogamy. The fused hyphae containing haploid nuclei from two individuals is heterokaryotic. In some cases, plasmogamy results in cells with one nucleus from each individual. This condition is called dikaryotic. Eventually, two nuclei that originated from different individuals fuse to form a diploid zygote. Meiosis then produces either four haploid nuclei or four haploid cells. Asexual spores (無(wú)性孢子)are formed by the aerial mycelium of one organism. When these spores germinate, they bee organisms that are genetically identical to the parent. Sexual spores (有性孢子) result from the fusion of nuclei from two opposite mating strains of the same species of fungus. Organisms that grow from sexual spores will have genetic characteristics of both parental strains. VirusVirus（病毒的概念）：Viruses are a unique group of tiny infectious particles that are obligate parasites of cells, are not cells but resemble plex molecules posed of DNA or RNA. Most of them are so small () that an electron microscope is necessary to detect them.Structures of viruses: naked virus (nucleic acid, capsid)。含有溫和噬菌體的寄主細(xì)胞稱為溶源細(xì)胞或細(xì)胞溶源化。4, Assembly。Platform phage：It is the period that all of the host cells are lysated and the valence of virus reaches the apogee.某些噬菌體侵染細(xì)菌后，將自身基因組整合到細(xì)菌細(xì)胞染色體上，隨寄主細(xì)胞分裂而同步復(fù)制，并不引起細(xì)菌裂解釋放噬菌體，因而被稱作溫和噬菌體（temperate phage）溫和性噬菌體和烈性噬菌體生活周期的比較：Prion（阮病毒的概念）：A prion (= proteinaceous infectious pa