【正文】 論述微生物在工農(nóng)業(yè)和環(huán)境治理等方面的應(yīng)用。 4, Microorganism in wastewater treatment and bioremediation。 2, Microorganism as biomedicine。免疫學(xué)技術(shù)有凝集反應(yīng)、沉淀反應(yīng)、補體結(jié)合反應(yīng)、中和反應(yīng)和標(biāo)記免疫反應(yīng)五種類型。 Ig的類別（classes)和亞類（subclasses)224。抗原決定簇（antigenic determinant)又稱為抗原表位（epitope)，指位于抗原表面可決定抗原特異性的特定化學(xué)基團(tuán)。The process of immune response includes: Inductive stage (感應(yīng)階段）； Proliferative and differentiation stage（增殖和分化階段）； Effective stage（效應(yīng)階段）.Antigen（抗原）：Substances, such as proteins, nucleoproteins, polysaccharides, and some glycolipids, that elicit an immune response and react with the products of that response are called antigens.Most antigens are large, plex molecules with a molecular weight generally greater than about 10,000.完全抗原（plete antigen):凡同時具有免疫原性和免疫反應(yīng)性的抗原，就稱之為完全抗原。從抗原刺激開始，經(jīng)過抗原特異性淋巴細(xì)胞對抗原的識別（感應(yīng)），使它們發(fā)生活化、增殖、分化等一系列變化，最終表現(xiàn)出相應(yīng)的體液免疫或（和）細(xì)胞免疫效應(yīng)免疫應(yīng)答（immune response)具有：能識別異己、具有特異性和記憶性是免疫應(yīng)答的三個突出特點。包括骨髓（bone marrow)，胸腺（thymus）和法氏囊（bursa of Fabricius)。補體的本質(zhì)是一種“酶原”，能夠被任何抗原抗體復(fù)合物激活，參與破壞和清除已被抗體結(jié)合的抗原和細(xì)胞，發(fā)揮其溶胞作用、促進(jìn)吞噬等作用。 （2）免疫穩(wěn)定（immunologic homeostasis)。決定傳染結(jié)局的三大因素: 病原體，宿主的免疫力，環(huán)境因素細(xì)菌毒素可以分為外毒素（exotoxin)和內(nèi)毒素(endotoxin)兩大類。（二）根圈微生物對植物生長的不利影響A, 引起作物病害；B, 某些有害微生物雖無致病性，但其產(chǎn)生的有毒物質(zhì)能抑制種子的發(fā)芽、幼苗的生長和根系的發(fā)育；C, 競爭有限養(yǎng)分。根圈（rhizosphere): 也稱根標(biāo)，指生長中的植物根系直接影響的土壤區(qū)域，為植物根系有效吸收養(yǎng)分的范圍。拮抗包括：特異性和非特異性拮抗作用。Mutualism： [Latin mutuus, borrowed or reciprocal （互惠的）] defines the relationship in which some reciprocal benefit accrues（得利，獲益） to both partners. This is an obligatory relationship in which the mutualist and the host are metabolically dependent on each other. Lichens （地衣）are excellent example of mutualism. Lichens are the association between specific asycetes (the fungus) and certain genera of either green algae or cyanobacteria.Protocooperation（協(xié)同共棲）：Protocooperation is a mutually beneficial relationship, similar to that which occurs in mutualism, but in protocooperation, this relationship is not obligatory.協(xié)同共棲：兩種微生物在群落中盡管獨自生活，但他們各自的生命活動對其伙伴產(chǎn)生有利影響，主要表現(xiàn)為提供營養(yǎng)和消除有害因素。Microbial ecology（微生物生態(tài)學(xué)的概念）: Microbial ecology is the study of microbial relationships with other organisms and also with their nonliving environments.Microbial ecology is the study of the behavior and activities of microorganisms in their natural environments. （二選一） The characteristics of microbial ecosystem（微生物生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的特點）：（microenvironments）（stability）（adaptability）微生物在生態(tài)系統(tǒng)作用：（見PPT）Biogeochemical cycling （生物地球化學(xué)循環(huán)）：Microorganisms, in the course of their growth and metabolism, interact with each other in the cycling of nutrients, including carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and manganese. This nutrient cycling, called biogeochemical cycling.氮素循環(huán)：四個概念（固氮作用，氨化作用，硝化作用，反硝化作用），五個環(huán)節(jié)（固氮作用，氨化作用，同化作用，硝化作用和反硝化作用），一張圖。} Osmotic pressure} Radiation。(2) and those that count viable cells only. 連續(xù)培養(yǎng): 在微生物進(jìn)入對數(shù)期時，一方面以一定速度源源不斷地輸入新鮮培養(yǎng)液，另一方面緩緩地以同樣速度移去培養(yǎng)物（包括菌體和代謝產(chǎn)物），可以延長對數(shù)生長期，這種培養(yǎng)方法稱為連續(xù)培養(yǎng)?；鶊F(tuán)轉(zhuǎn)位（group translocation）屬于主動運輸?shù)囊环N特殊形式。Burst phase：During this period, the number of virion increases rapidly with lysis of host cell③穩(wěn)定期溶液中噬菌體總數(shù)達(dá)到最高點后的時期。3, Replication。病毒可在短時間內(nèi)能連續(xù)完成吸附、侵入、增殖（復(fù)制與生物合成）、成熟（裝配）和裂解（釋放）5個階段而實現(xiàn)其繁殖。rhizoid(假根)。 (3) Asycota （子囊菌亞門，高等真菌） ⑥ Heterotrophy by absorption。 ② Having no chloroplast and photosynthesis。Species All species names of cellular microorganisms obey the Latin binominal nomenclature built by Linnaeus without exception.Mycoplasma (支原體)are the procaryotic organism between bacteria (細(xì)菌) and rickettsia (立克次氏體).Chlamydia (衣原體)are a genus of minitype Gramnegative prokaryotic organism which obligate parasitize in eukaryotic cells.Spirochaeta are a group of Gramnegative unicellular prokaryotic organism whose configuration and kinesiology are particular.Substrate mycelium Aerial hyphae Sporular hyphaMajor Characteristics Used in Taxonomy：? 1，Classical Characteristics? Morphological Characteristics? Physiological and Metabolic Characteristics? Ecological Characteristics? Genetic Analysis? 2, Molecular Characteristics? Comparison of Proteins? Nucleic Acid Base Composition? Nucleic Acid Hybridization? Nucleic Acid Sequencing (16S rRNA sequencing)Bacterial colony (菌落): A bacterial colony is defined as a visible cluster of organisms growing on the surface of or within a solid medium, theoretically cultured from a single cell.Bacterial lawn (菌苔): Bacterial lawn is a used by biologists to describe the appearance of bacterial co