【正文】 lar weight generally greater than about 10,000.完全抗原（plete antigen):凡同時(shí)具有免疫原性和免疫反應(yīng)性的抗原，就稱之為完全抗原。 （2）免疫穩(wěn)定（immunologic homeostasis)。拮抗包括：特異性和非特異性拮抗作用。(2) and those that count viable cells only. 連續(xù)培養(yǎng): 在微生物進(jìn)入對(duì)數(shù)期時(shí)，一方面以一定速度源源不斷地輸入新鮮培養(yǎng)液，另一方面緩緩地以同樣速度移去培養(yǎng)物（包括菌體和代謝產(chǎn)物），可以延長(zhǎng)對(duì)數(shù)生長(zhǎng)期，這種培養(yǎng)方法稱為連續(xù)培養(yǎng)。病毒可在短時(shí)間內(nèi)能連續(xù)完成吸附、侵入、增殖（復(fù)制與生物合成）、成熟（裝配）和裂解（釋放）5個(gè)階段而實(shí)現(xiàn)其繁殖。 ② Having no chloroplast and photosynthesis。試述革蘭氏陽(yáng)性菌和革蘭氏陰性菌肽聚糖單體的異同點(diǎn)。G+菌由于細(xì)胞壁厚，肽聚糖網(wǎng)層次多而交聯(lián)緊密，并且不含類脂，故以乙醇脫色時(shí)不會(huì)溶出縫隙，反而使肽聚糖網(wǎng)孔收縮，使染料滯留在細(xì)胞壁內(nèi)而使其染上紫色；反之，G菌由于細(xì)胞壁薄，外膜層類脂含量高，肽聚糖層薄和交聯(lián)度差，當(dāng)遇到乙醇時(shí)，以類脂為主的的外膜迅速溶解，這時(shí)薄而松散的肽聚糖網(wǎng)不能阻擋結(jié)晶紫與碘的復(fù)合物的溶出，故細(xì)胞退成無色。 Plants obtain energy from the sun, fungi do not。 Haustorium（吸器） Life cycle of fungi:In general, the life cycle involves the fusion of hyphae from two individuals, forming a mycelium that contains haploid nuclei of both individuals. The fusion of hyphae is called plasmogamy. The fused hyphae containing haploid nuclei from two individuals is heterokaryotic. In some cases, plasmogamy results in cells with one nucleus from each individual. This condition is called dikaryotic. Eventually, two nuclei that originated from different individuals fuse to form a diploid zygote. Meiosis then produces either four haploid nuclei or four haploid cells. Asexual spores (無性孢子)are formed by the aerial mycelium of one organism. When these spores germinate, they bee organisms that are genetically identical to the parent. Sexual spores (有性孢子) result from the fusion of nuclei from two opposite mating strains of the same species of fungus. Organisms that grow from sexual spores will have genetic characteristics of both parental strains. VirusVirus（病毒的概念）：Viruses are a unique group of tiny infectious particles that are obligate parasites of cells, are not cells but resemble plex molecules posed of DNA or RNA. Most of them are so small () that an electron microscope is necessary to detect them.Structures of viruses: naked virus (nucleic acid, capsid)。比較這四種營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)運(yùn)輸方式的異同；Synthetic medium （合成培養(yǎng)基）：Such a medium in which all ponents are known is a defined medium or synthetic medium.Complex media ：Media that contain some ingredients of unknown chemical position are plex media.Agar（瓊脂） is well suited as a solidifying agent because after it has been melted in boiling water, it can be cooled to about 40 to 42176。Commensalism（共生）： [Latin , together, and mensa, table] is a relationship in which one symbiont, the mensal, benefits while the other (sometimes called the host) is neither harmed nor helped. This is a unidirectional process.微生物之間的對(duì)抗：競(jìng)爭(zhēng)(petition)、拮抗(antagonism)、寄生(parasitism)和捕食（predation）。 外毒素（exotoxin): An exotoxin is a toxin excreted by a microorganism, including bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa. An exotoxin can cause damage to the host by destroying cells or disrupting normal cellular metabolism.類毒素（toxoid)：%%甲醛溶液對(duì)外毒素進(jìn)行脫毒處理，可以獲得失去毒性但仍然保留其原有免疫原性的生物制品，稱之為類毒素.抗毒素：將類毒素注射機(jī)體后，可使機(jī)體產(chǎn)生對(duì)相應(yīng)外毒素具有免疫性的抗體，稱之為~ 內(nèi)毒素（endotoxin): 是革蘭氏陰性菌細(xì)胞壁外層的組分之一，其化學(xué)成分是脂多糖，因其在活細(xì)胞中不分泌到體外，僅在細(xì)菌死亡后自溶或人工裂解時(shí)才釋放，故稱之為內(nèi)毒素。根據(jù)參與的免疫活性細(xì)胞的種類和功能的不同，免疫應(yīng)答又可分為：細(xì)胞免疫和體液免疫兩類。The field of microbiology application: 167。微生物農(nóng)藥，是利用微生物及其代謝產(chǎn)物來防治植物病蟲害的一種制劑，它是通過篩選植物病原體的拮抗微生物，用人工方法培養(yǎng)、收集、提取而制成的對(duì)人畜安全無毒、選擇性強(qiáng)、不傷害天敵、不污染環(huán)境的微生物制劑。近對(duì)稱軸的一對(duì)較長(zhǎng)的肽鏈稱為重鏈（H鏈），外側(cè)一對(duì)較短的肽鏈稱為輕鏈（L鏈）。 中樞免疫器官（central immune organ）：免疫細(xì)胞發(fā)生、分化和成熟的場(chǎng)所。根圈微生物對(duì)植物生長(zhǎng)的影響：（一）根圈微生物對(duì)植物生長(zhǎng)的有益影響A, 改善植物營(yíng)養(yǎng)；B, 根圈微生物分泌的維生素、氨基酸、生長(zhǎng)刺激素等生長(zhǎng)調(diào)節(jié)物質(zhì)能促進(jìn)植物的生長(zhǎng)；C, 根圈微生物分泌的抗菌素類物質(zhì)，有利于作物避免土著性病原菌的侵染；D, 產(chǎn)生鐵載體，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)鐵素，抑制有害微生物生長(zhǎng)繁殖。 英文概念：Transformation is the uptake by a cell of a naked DNA molecule or fragment from the medium.The transformation frequency of very petent cells is around 103 for most genera when an excess of DNA is used.Artificial transformation is carried out in the laboratory by a variety of techniques, including treatment of the cells with calcium chloride(氯化鈣)Transduction（轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)）：Transduction is the transfer of bacterial genes by viruses. Bacterial genes are incorporated into a phage capsid because of errors made during the virus life cycle. The virus containing these genes then injects them into another bacterium, pleting the transfer.There are two very different kinds of transduction: generalized transduction (普遍性轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)）and specialized transduction（特異性轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo)）Generalized transduction occurs during the lytic cycle of virulent and temperate phages and can transfer any part of the bacterial genome. During the assembly stage, when the viral chromosomes are