【正文】 h as not, nothing)? Gener al: Note whet her any gener al t ypes of gr ammati cal constr uction ar e used t o speci al ef fect ( eg par ati ve or super lat ive const ructi ons, coor dinati ve or l isti ng const ructi ons, par ent het ical constr uct ions, i nter ject ions and aft er thoughts as occur i n causal speech). And see t o the number of l ists and coordinat ions. Fi gur es of Speech Here we consider the f eat ur es which ar e for egr ounded by vir t ue of depar ti ng in som e way fr om general nor ms of muni cati on by means of the language code, f or exampl e, exploit ati on of deviati ons fr om t he li ngui st ic code. Gr ammat ical and l exi cal schemes ( for egr ounded r epeti ti ons of expressi on) : Ar e there any cases of f or mal and st ructur al r epet it ion ( anaphora, par alel ism, etc) or of m ir ror i mage pat terns ( chi asm us) ? Is t he rhetor ical ef f ect of these one of anti thesi s, r einfor cem ent , cl imax, ant icl imax, et c? Phonologi cal schemes: Ar e t her e any phonol ogi cal pat er ns of rhyme, al li terat ion, assonance, etc? Ar e t her e any sal ient r hythmi cal pat er ns? Do vowels and consonant sounds pat er n or cluster in par ti cul ar ways? How do these phonological featur es i nteract wit h meaning? Tr opes ( foregr ounded ir r egular it ies of cont ent ): Ar e there any obvious viol at ions of or neol ogi sm s fr om t he li ngui st ic code? For example, are t her e any neol ogi sms (such as “por tentous inf ant s”) ? Ar e there any semanti c, synt act ic, phonologi cal , or gr aphological devi at i ons? Such devi at ions are of ten t he cl ue to special inter pretat ions associ ated wi th t radit ional fi gur es of speech such as metaphor , metonymy, synecdoche, paradox, and i rony. I f such t r opes occur , what kind of speci al i nterpr etati on is i nvol ved ( f or example, metaphor can be cl assif ied as per soni fyi ng, animal izing, concret izing, synaest het ic, etc)? Cont ext and cohesion Her e we t ake a look at featur es which are general y f ul ly dealt wi th in di scourse anal ysi s. Under cohesion ways i n which one part of a t ext i s li nked t o anot her ar e considered。 and wor ds ar e also symbols. (P. 218. Oxf ord Concise Di ct ionary of Li ter ar y Term s. ) A symbol i s a t hi ng that suggest s mor e than i ts l iter al m eaning. I t exist s widely even i n our dai ly l if e. Our l anguage it self i s sym bol . The dai ly gr eet ings indi cat e that the pasage of m uni cat ion i s open. Ring i s a symbol of eter nit y. The sign of c ross indicates atonement. The Bi g Ben sym bol izes London, the Gr eat Wal China. Rit ual isti c act s are symboli c. I n church wedding t he bri de is handed over fr om t he fat her t o the gr oom . Hol y eati ng is symboli c of m uni on, bapti zi ng cleansi ng and r ebir th. The rai si ng and loweri ng of a nat ional fl ag cer tainl y suggest m eanings l ar ger t han t he act s themsel ves. And f inal y toasti ng and shaking hands on f orm al or i nf orm al occasions. As rhetor ical device, symbol i s di f erent fr om m et aphor , whi ch is l it eral y f al se but f igurat ively t rue. Unli ke al legory, which r epr esents abstr act t er ms l ike “l(fā)ove” or “t rut h,” symbols are per cept ible obj ects. I n li terat ur e alm ost anyt hing—par ti cul ar objects, char act er s, set ing, and act ions—can be symbol ic i f the author wishes to m ake i t so by either hint ing or insisti ng that the m at eri al means mor e than i t l it era l y does. Symbols are suggest ed through speci al t reatment such as i mager y, r epet it ion, connotati ve language, or ot her ar tist ic devices. In F. Scott Fi tzger ald’s novel The Great Gatsby, a huge pai r of bespect acl ed eyes stares across a wi ldness of ash heaps fr om a bi l boar d adver ti si ng the servi ces of an ocul ist. Repeat edl y appear ing i n the stor y, t he bespect acl ed eyes e t o mean mor e than simpl y the avail abi li ty of eye exami nat ion. A character in the stor y par es it to the eyes of God。 i t is, rather, a symbol the poet or t he wri ter adopt s for t he pur pose of his/ her wor k, and i t i s to be underst ood onl y in the cont ext of t hat wor k. I t dif fers fr om t he ki nd of symbol i l ustr ated by t he fi gur e 3 because i t i s concr et e and specif ic. A poet or a wri ter uses symbols f or the same reason he/ she uses simi les, metaphor s, and i mages, et c: t hey hel p t o expr ess his/ her meaning i n a way t hat wi l appeal t o the senses and t o t he em otions of the r eader . Most symbols, in l it er atur e and everyday l if e as wel l, possess a tr emendous condensi ng power. Thei r focusi ng on t he relat ionshi ps bet wen t he visibl e (audible) and what they suggest can kindl e it int o a single impact. Of course, i n li ter ar y wor ks, symbols, unl ike t hose i n ordinar y li fe, usual y do not “st and for” any one meani ng, nor for anything absolutel y def ini te。 on t he other hand, the whi te whale is i nvested wi th di f erent meani ngs f or dif ferent crew member s t hr ough the handl ing of mat er ial s in t he novel . Si mi larl y, i n Hemi ngway’ s A Farewel l t o Ar ms, rain, which i s gener al ly regar ded as a sym bol of li fe (especial ly i n spr ing) , and whi ch is a m il dly annoyi ng meteorol ogi cal phenom enon i n the opening chapt er, is conver ted i nto a symbol of death thr ough t he uses t o which i t is put in t he work. 3. Symbols i n f icti on are inanim ate obj ect s Oft en symbol s we meet in fi ct ion ar e inanimat e obj ect s. I n Wil iam Faul ker ’s “A Rose f or Em i l y, ” Mi ss Emil y’s i nvi sible but percept ibl e watch t icking at the end of a golden chai n not onl y indi cat es t he passage of t ime, but suggests that im e passes wit hout even bei ng not iced by t he watch’s owner. The golden chai n to which i t