【正文】 k (). A list of reference books: 1.《 語言學(xué)教程 》 (英語版 ), 胡壯麟 , 北京大學(xué)出版社 。 2.《 語言學(xué)概論 》 王德春 ， 上海外語教育出版社 。 4.《 現(xiàn)代語言學(xué) 》 何兆熊 梅德明 ， 外語教學(xué)與研究出版社 5.《 簡明英語語言學(xué)教程 》 （ 英語版 ） 戴煒棟等 ， 上海外語教育出版社 6.《 語言學(xué)和語言的應(yīng)用 》 王宗炎 ， 上海外語教育出版社 7.《 語言學(xué) 》 ， 上海外語教育出版社 8.《 語言學(xué)入門 》 （ 英語版 ） Stuart C. Poole 外語教學(xué)與 研究出版社 Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics ? The Nature of Language (~) ? What is language? As human beings, we can feel the existence of language everywhere. However, very few of us know the true nature of language. There is remarkable uncertainty as how language really functions in human munication. Great efforts have been made to define the nature of language from different points of view (See the 4 ones on ). Some additional ones: ? Language is the most frequently used and most highly developed form of human munication we possess. ── David Crystal ?語言是音義結(jié)合的詞匯和語法的體系 ， 是人類最重要的工具 ， 是人類思維的工具 ， 也是社會(huì)上傳遞信息的工具 。 ） 2. Arbitrariness（ 任意性 ） ── Except the very few onomatopoeic words (. cuckoo, mew, bang, dingdong, pingpang), there is no necessary relationship between the sign/sound and what the sign/sound means (. a dog, un chien, 狗 )（ 除了極少數(shù)擬聲詞之外 ， 語言中大部 分的詞與其所表示的意思之間都沒有內(nèi)在 的 、 必然的聯(lián)系 。 ii. No animal munication possesses it. ) 4. Displacement（ 不受時(shí)空限制性 ） ── Human language can cope with any subject what ever, and it does not matter how far away the topic is in time and space. （ 語言可以用來表達(dá)任何時(shí)間 、 任何地點(diǎn)的任何抽象或具體的人 、 事 、 物 ） . transmission （ 文化傳遞特性 /從頭學(xué)的必要性 ） ── The details of the linguistic system must be learned anew from the beginning by each speaker. Without the environment of language and munication, language can‘t be acquired . （ 語言非遺傳所得 ， 人人都得從頭學(xué) 起 。 Pratt, signs can be categorized into 3 major types: ? (1) Icon (圖像符號(hào) )When an object and its sign are related by a physical resemblance, we say the sign is an icon (如：路標(biāo) ， 男女圖案 ， 刀叉圖案 ). ? (2) Index（ 指示符號(hào) ） When an object and its sign are associated to each other by physical proximity, we call the sign an index （ 如：各種天氣預(yù)報(bào)標(biāo)識(shí) ， 心被劍射中的圖案 ） . ? (3) Symbol (象征符號(hào) )When a sign and the object it signifies are associated by social convention, the sign is called a symbol （ 如：交通燈 ， 結(jié)婚戒指 ， 國旗 ， 鴿子 ， 倒寫的福字 ， 條桌上的花瓶和鏡子 ， 五只蝙蝠 ， 玫瑰花等等 ） 。 ? (Have a look at the exercises at the back of this part on P. 5.) Language Is Arbitrary (P. 67) ? The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages. ? Arbitrariness does not imply that the choice of the signifier is left entirely to the speaker. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has bee established in the linguistic munity. ? The understanding of arbitrariness is not easy. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. One thing we should note that although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there exists certain relationship between them. ? (Have a look at the exercises at the back of this part on P. 7.) Language Is Primarily Vocal (P. 7) ? The relationship between writing and speaking: 1. The primary medium of language is sound. No matter how well developed are their writing systems, all languages use sounds. 2. Writing is based on speaking. Writing systems are attempts to capture sounds and meanings on paper. Writing can influence speaking Why do we say that language is primarily vocal? Because: 1) Children learn to speak before they learn to read and write。 ? the magical function: language as a means of control over environment。 near and dear。 好得一塌糊涂！ Ambiguity: 頭腦活絡(luò) ， 手腳靈活 。 買一送一 。 are you the one to discover me? Metafunctions of Language (語言的元功能 /純理 功能 ) (~20) ? A metafunction is one which is capable of describing one or more other functions. ? People do different things with language. They intend to achieve different aims and different purposes by talking, writing, listening and reading. ? Language is a system of signs developed to express social meanings. Function can be regarded as the use of language and be interpreted as a fundamental property of language. ? According to Halliday, language has to have an ideational function, an interpersonal function, and a textual function. Ideational Function (概念功能 ) ? We are using language as a symbolic code to represent the world around us. The ideational function, then, is the content of language and allows us to conceptualize the world for our own benefit and that of others. ? Through this function, the language encodes the cultural experience and the speaker encodes his or her own individual experience of the things of the world and his or her own consciousness. ? The ideational function is divided into experiential function and logical function. In a sense we bring the world into being linguistically. Interpersonal Function (人際功能 ) ? According to Halliday, the interpersonal ponent represents the speaker‘s meaning potential as an intruder. ? It is through language that the speaker intrudes himself or herself into the context of situation. He or she expresses his or her own attitudes and judgments and seeks to influence the attitudes and behavior of others. ? The interpersonal function expresses the role relationships associated with the situation. ? We gain much of our sense of identity, of who and what we are, from our relationships both wi