【正文】 deviat ions? Such deviati ons ar e oft en the cl ue to speci al i nterpr etati ons associat ed wit h tr adit ional f igur es of speech such as m et aphor , m et onym y, synecdoche, par adox, and ir ony. I f such t ropes occur, what kind of special int er pret at ion i s involved ( for exam pl e, m etaphor can be classi fi ed as per sonif ying, ani mali zi ng, concreti zi ng, synaestheti c, et c) ? Context and cohesi on Her e we t ake a l ook at f eat ures whi ch ar e gener aly ful ly dealt wi th i n discour se analysis. Under cohesi on ways in which one par t of a text is l inked to another are considered。 and wor ds are also symbols. (P. 218. Oxf ord Concis e Di cti onary of Liter ary Terms. ) A symbol is a t hing t hat suggests mor e t han i t s l it er al meani ng. I t exi st s widely even i n our dai ly l if e. Our l anguage it sel f is symbol. The dai ly gr eet ings i ndi cat e that the pasage of m uni cat ion i s open. Ri ng is a symbol of et er nit y. The sign of cr oss i ndi cat es at onement. The Bi g Ben symbolizes London, the Gr eat Wal China. Rit ualist ic acts are symbol ic. In church wedding t he bri de is handed over fr om the f at her t o the gr oom. Holy eati ng is symboli c of munion, bapti zing cleansi ng and rebir th. The rai si ng and loweri ng of a national fl ag cer tainl y suggest m eani ngs l ar ger than the acts t hem se lves. And fi nal ly t oast ing and shaking hands on f or mal or infor mal occasi ons. As r het ori cal devi ce, symbol is dif fer ent f rom metaphor, which i s li ter al ly false but fi gur ati vel y tr ue. Unl ike al egor y, whi ch repr esents abst ract term s li ke “l(fā) ove” or “tr uth, ” symbol s ar e perceptibl e objects. I n l it er atur e al most anythi ng—part icular object s, character s, set ti ng, and acti ons—can be symboli c if t he aut hor wi shes t o make it so by ei ther hi nti ng or i nsi sting that he mater ial m eans m ore than it l it er aly does. Sym bol s are suggested t hrough special tr eat ment such as im ager y, r epeti ti on, connot ati ve language, or other art isti c devi ces. In F. Scot Fit zger al d’s novel The Gr eat Gat sby, a huge pai r of bespectacled eyes st ares acr oss a wil dness of ash heaps fr om a bi l boar d adver tisi ng the services of an ocul ist. Repeat edl y appeari ng in the stor y, t he bespect acled eyes e to mean more t han si mply the avai labil it y of eye exami nat ion. A char act er in t he st ory par es i t to t he eyes of God。 i t is, rather , a symbol the poet or t he wr it er adopt s f or t he pur pose of hi s/ her wor k, and i t is t o be under st ood onl y i n the context of t hat wor k. It dif fer s fr om t he kind of sym bol i l ust rated by t he fi gure 3 because i t is concr ete and specif ic. A poet or a wri ter uses s ymbols f or the same r eason he/ she uses sim iles, metaphor s, and i mages, etc: they help t o expr es hi s/ her m eaning i n a way that wi l l appeal t o the senses and to the emoti ons of t he reader . Most symbols, in li terat ur e and ever yday l if e as wel , possess a t remendous condensing power. Their f ocusing on t he rel at ionships bet ween the vi si ble ( audi bl e) and what t hey suggest can ki ndl e i t i nto a si ngl e im pact . Of course, in l it erar y wor ks, sym bol s, unl ike those in or dinary li fe, usual y do not “st and for” any one meani ng, nor for anything absol utely def ini te。 on t he other hand, the whi te whal e is i nvested wi th dif ferent meani ngs for dif fer ent crew members t hrough the handling of m at eri al s in the novel . Simi larl y, in Hemi ngway’ s A Far ewel l to Ar ms, rain, whi ch is gener al y regarded as a sym bol of l if e (especial ly i n spri ng) , and whi ch is a mil dly annoyi ng met eor ol ogical phenomenon i n t he opening chapter, i s convert ed into a sym bol of deat h thr ough the uses t o which i t is put in the wor k. 3. Symbols i n f icti on are inanim ate obj ect s Of ten sym bol s we m et in fi ct ion ar e inanim at e objects. I n Wil li am Faulker’ s “A Rose for Em i l y, ” Mi s Em ily’ s invisi bl e but per cepti ble wat ch ti cki ng at he end of a gol den chain not only indicates the passage of ti me, but suggests t hat t ime passes wi thout even being noti ced by the wat ch’ s owner . The gol den chain to whi ch it i s at tached car ri es suggesti ons of weal th and authori ty. Other thi ngs may also functi on sym bol ical y. I n Jam es Joyce’ s “Araby,” t he ver y name of the bazzar , Ar aby—t he poet ic name f or Ar abia—suggest s magic, romance, and The Arabian Ni ghts。 i n Er nest Hemingway’s “A Clean, Wel Light ed Place” i s not m er ely a caf 233。 of tr ansit ive or i nt ra nsit ive verb constr uct ions) ? Ar e there any unusual order ings (i nit ial adverbi al s, f ront ing of object or plement, etc) ? Do speci al ki nds of clause constr uct ion occur (such as t hose wi th prepar ator y it or t here) ? Noun phr ases: Are they rel at ively si mple or plex? Wher e does t he plexity li e (i n prem odi fi cat ion by adjecti ves, nouns, et c, or i n post modif ication by pr eposi tion by pr eposi tional phr ases, relat ive clauses, et c)? Ver b phr ases: Are t here any signif icant depart ures fr om the use of t he simpl e past tense? For exam ple, not ice occur rences and f unct ions of the pr esent t ense, of t he progr essive aspect, of the perf ect aspect, of modal auxi liar ies. ot her phrase t ypes: I s t her e anyt hing t o be sai d about other phr ases t ypes, such as preposi ti onal phrases, adverb phr ases, adj ect ive phrases? Wor d classes: Havi ng alr eady consi der ed major wor d classes, we may consi der m inor word cl asses (eg f unct ional wor ds) , such as preposi ti ons, conj unct ions, pr onouns, deter miner s, auxi li ari es, int er jecti ons. Ar e par ti cul ar words of these types used f or par ticul ar ef ect ( eg demonst rati ve