【正文】 er act ional , soci al , i nst it uti onal, cult ural, and hist or i cal si t uati on i n which t he di scour se i s made, we consider the exter nal r el at i ons of t he l it erar y text or a par t of t he text, seei ng it as a di scourse presupposing a social rel at ion bet wen i ts part ici pants ( aut hor and r eader, character and char act er , char act er and r eader, etc.) , and a shari ng of knowl edge and assum pt i ons by part ici pants. Cohesi on: Does t he t ext cont ai n l ogical or ot her li nks bet ween sent ences (eg coordi nati ng conj unct ions, l i nki ng adverbi al s) , or does it t end to r epl y on i mpli ci t connecti ons of m eaning? What sort of use i s made of cross r ef er ence by pr onouns ( she, it , t hey, et c), by subst it ute f orm s ( do, so, etc), or el i psis? I s ther e any use made of el egant vari at i on—the avoi dance of r epeti ti on by substi uti on of a descri pti ve phr ase ( as “t he old l awyer ” substi t ut es for t he r epet it ion of an ear li er “Mr Jones”) ? Ar e meani ng connecti ons r ei nf or ced by r epeti ti on of wor ds and phr ases, or by repeat edl y usi ng wor ds f r om t he same sem anti c fi el d? Context: Does t he writ er addr es t he reader di rect l y, or t hr ough t he wor ds or t houghts of som e f icti onal char act er? What l i nguisti c clues ( eg f ir st per son pr onouns I, m e, m y, mi ne) ar e t her e of t he addr eser addr esee rel ati onshi p? What at ti t ude does t he author im pl y t owar ds hi s/her subj ect ? If a charact er’ s wor ds or t houghts ar e r epr esent ed, i s t hi s done by di r ect quot at i on, or by som e ot her m et hod ( eg i ndir ect speech, f r e i ndi r ect speech) ? Ar e t her e si gni fi cant changes of st yle wit h r espect t o di f er ent per sons ( nar r at or or character) who is supposedl y speaki ng or t hinking t he wor ds on t he page? What i s the poi nt of view of t he st ory? Ar e t he fr equent shif t s of poi nt vi ew? If so, i n whose voi ce is t he nar r at or speaki ng? Chapter Seven Sym bol What i s sym bol ? Sym bol, i n the sim pl est sense, anyt hi ng that st ands f or or r epresent s som et hi ng else beyond it—usual y an i dea conventi onal l y associ at ed wit h i t. Obj ect s l i ke f l ags and cr osses can f uncti on sym boli cal l y。t ypes of sent ence ar e used, what is t hei r f uncti on? Sent ence pl exi t y: Do sent ences on whol e have a sim pl e or a pl ex str uct ure? What i s the aver age sent ence l engt h? Does pl exit y var y st ri ki ngly f r om one sent ence t o anot her ? I s pl exi t y m ainl y due t o ( i) coor di nati on, (i ) subor di nati on, ( i ) j uxt aposit on of clauses or of other equi val ent str uct ures? I n what part s of t he t ext does pl exi t y tend t o occur ? cl ause t ypes: What types of cl auses are f avor ed—r el at i ve cl auses, adver bial cl auses, or di f er ent t ypes of nomi nal cl auses? Ar e nonf init e f orms m onl y used, and if so, of what t ypes ar e t hey (i nfi ni ti ve, i ng form , ed f orm, ver bl es str uct ure) ? What is t hei r f uncti on? Clause st r uct ur e: I s t her e anyt hi ng signif icant about cl ause el em ent s (eg f r equency of objects, adver bi al s, pl em ent s。 of t ransi ti ve or i ntr ansit i ve ver b constr uct i ons) ? Are t here any unusual orderi ngs ( i ni ti al adver bi al s, f ronti ng of obj ect or plement, et c) ? Do speci al ki nds of cl ause constr uct i on occur (such as those wit h pr eparat or y it or t here)? Noun phr ases: Ar e t hey relati vel y sim pl e or plex? Wher e does t he pl exi t y li e (i n pr em odi fi cat ion by adj ecti ves, nouns, et c, or i n post modif icati on by pr eposit i on by pr eposit i onal phr ases, relati ve clauses, et c)? Ver b phr ases: Ar e there any si gnif i cant depart ures f rom the use of the sim pl e past t ense? For exam ple, not i ce occurr ences a nd funct i ons of t he pr esent tense, of t he pr ogr esi ve aspect, of t he per f ect aspect , of m odal auxi li ari es. ot her phr ase t ypes: I s t here anythi ng to be said about ot her phr ases t ypes, such as pr eposit i onal phr ases, adverb phr ases, adjecti ve phr ases? Wor d classes: Havi ng al r eady consi der ed m aj or wor d classes, we m ay consi der mi nor word cl asses ( eg f uncti onal wor ds) , such as pr eposi ti ons, conj unct ions, pr onouns, det erm i ner s, auxi li ari es, i nt er j ecti ons. Ar e par ti cul ar wor ds of t hese t ypes used f or par ti cul ar ef fect (eg dem onst r ati ves such as t hi s and that, negat ives such as not, nothi ng)? Gener al: Not e whet her any gener al types of gr am mati cal const r ucti on are used t o speci al ef f ect (eg parati ve or superl at i ve const r uct ions, coordi nati ve or li st i ng const r ucti ons, parent heti cal const r ucti ons, i nt er j ecti ons and af tert hought s as occur i n causal speech) . And see to t he num ber of l ists and coordi nati ons. Fi gur es of Speech Her e we consi der t he f eat ur es which ar e f or egr ounded by vir t ue of depar ti ng i n som e way fr om general nor ms of municati on by means of t he language code, f or exampl e, expl oit at i on of devi ati ons f r om t he l i ngui sti c code. Gr amm ati cal and l exi cal schem es (f oregr ounded repeti i ons of expr esi on) : Ar e t here any cases of f orm al and st ructur al r epeti ti on ( anaphor a, par al leli sm , et c) or of mi r ror im age pat er ns ( chi asm us) ? Is t he r het or ical ef f ect of t hese one of ant it hesi s, r ei nf or cem ent, cli max, ant icli max, et c? Phonol ogi cal schemes: Are t her e any phonol ogi cal pat t er ns of r hym e, al li ter at ion, assonance, et c? Ar e t her e any sal ient rhythmi cal pat er ns? Do vowels and consonant sounds pat er n or cl uster i n par ti cul ar ways? How do these phonologi cal featur es i nter act wit h m eani ng?