【正文】 st came to Italy？ (what propositions 先決條件 were there in Italy for renaissance to flourish？？ What priorities 優(yōu)勢 were there in Italy for renaissance to flourish？ ) Because of its geographical position (有利的地理位置 )， foreign trade developed early in Italy. This brought Italy into contact with other cultures and gave rise to (有推動力 ) urban (城市的 ) economy and helped Italy to accumulated wealth (積累財(cái)富 )。 This movement which swept over (席卷了 ) the whole of Europe was aimed at opposing (反對 ) the absolute authority (權(quán)威 ) of the Roman Catholic Church and replacing (代替 ) it with the absolute authority of the Bible. The reformists (改革者 ) engaged (使用 ) themselves in translating the Bible into their mother tongues. 宗教改革的實(shí)質(zhì)是：反對羅馬天主教，直接形式是用母語翻譯圣經(jīng) 三、 CounterReformation (反宗教改革 )名詞解釋 By late 1520 the Roman Catholic Church had lost its control over the church in Germany. The Roman Catholic Church did not stay idle (坐以待斃 )。 三、 What positive influence does the Crusades exert on the European Culture？ (What is the great significance of the Crusades？ ) The crusades brought the East into closer contact with the West. And they greatly influenced the history of Europe. (拉近了東西方的交流 ) During the wars while many of the feudal lords went to fight in Palestine， kings at home found opportunities (機(jī)會 ) to strengthen (加強(qiáng) ) themselves. Thus among other things， Crusades helped to break down feudalism， which， in turn led to the rise of the monarchies. (取而代之的是君主專制 ) 霍布斯主張君主專制 Besides， through their contact with the more cultured Byzantines and Moslems， the western Europeans changed many of their old ideas. Their desire (期望 ) for wealth or power began to overshadow (戰(zhàn)勝 ) their religious ideals. The Crusades also resulted in renewing people?s interest in learning and invention. By the 13th century， universities had spread all over Europe. Such knowledge as Arabic numerals (阿拉伯?dāng)?shù)字 )， algebra (代數(shù) )， and Arab medicine (醫(yī)學(xué) ) were introduced to the West. As trade increased， village and towns began to grow into cities. And the rise of towns and trade in western Europe paved the way of the growth of strong national governments. (民族政府 ) 四、 What is the difference between the vernacular language used in the National epics and the vernacular language used by Mark twain？ (重點(diǎn) ☆ ) The epic was the product of the Heroic Age. It was an important and mostly used form in ancient literature. “National epic” refers to the epic written in vernacular languages—that is， the languages of various national states (民族國家 ) that came into being in the Middle Ages. Literary works were no longer all written in Latin. It was the starting point of a gradual transition of European literature from Latin culture to a culture that was the bination of a variety of national characteristics. Both Beowulf and song of Roland were the representative works of the National Epics. The vernacular (方言 ) language used by Mark twain refers to both local and colloq (地方式俗語 ) language used in the Mississippi area， with a strong characteristic of that region (地區(qū) ) .Mark twain used vernacular language not only in dialogue， but also in narration. (敘述 ) His representative works Life on the Mississippi. 五、 Romanesque means in the Roman manner. Romanesque art is predominantly religious. Architecture is characterized by massiveness, solidity, and monumentality with an overall blocky appearance. 六 、 Gothic was an outgrowth of the Romanesque, but it was given direction by a different aesthetic and philosophical spirit and reflected a much more ordered feudal society with full confidence. cathedrals soared high, their windows, arches and towers reaching heavenward, flinging their passion against the sky. They were decorated with beautiful stained glass windows and sculptures more lifelike than any since ancient Rome. 六、 How did Feudalism develop in Europe in middle ages？ feudalism in Europe was mainly a system of land holding (土地所有 ) — a system of holding land in exchange for military service (軍事力量 )。 ② After 395 (分裂時(shí)間 )， the empire was divided into East (The Byzantine Empire) and West ③ In 476 the last emperor of the West was deposed by Goths and this marked the end of the West Roman Empire. ④ The East Roman Empire collapsed (崩潰 ) when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453. (英法百年戰(zhàn)爭結(jié)束 第二章 一 、 1. The Old Testament 名詞解釋 The Bible was divided into two sections： the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is about God and the Laws of God. The word “Testament” means “agreement”， the agreement between God and Man. 2. The New Testament 名詞解釋 The Bible was divided into two sections： the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament is about the doctrine (教義 ) of Jesus Christ. The word “Testament” means “agreement”， the agreement between God and Man. 二 、 How did Christianity originate and develop in the E