【正文】 度不同的中央控制，從而就需要獲得諸如經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)和運(yùn)籌學(xué)等領(lǐng)域?qū)＜业膮f(xié)助。they may alter the structure of education，or interfere in order to reduce the wastage of natural resources or tap resources hitherto unexploited。后者認(rèn)為歷史的研究是具體方法的研究。（75）這種謬論同樣存在于歷史傳統(tǒng)派和歷史社科派。史學(xué)家，尤其是那些局限于他們的研究興趣，以致被指責(zé)為單方同研究法的史學(xué)家，常常成了單純技術(shù)方法論的犧牲品?！　≡跉v史學(xué)界，方法論這個(gè)詞從來都是模棱兩可的。社會(huì)科學(xué)研究的方法必須改變以適應(yīng)這樣一條指導(dǎo)，即以史料為基礎(chǔ)，而不是為當(dāng)代社會(huì)之需?！　。?2）人們之所以關(guān)注歷史研究的方法論，主要是因?yàn)槭穼W(xué)界內(nèi)部意見不一，其次是因?yàn)橥饨绮⒉徽J(rèn)為歷史是一門學(xué)問。在這種探索中所發(fā)現(xiàn)的證據(jù)總是不完整的、零碎的，而且常常是有偏見的或帶有派別意識(shí)的。it is also frequently partial or irony of the historians craft is that its practitioners always know that their efforts are but contributions to an unending process.　　（72）Interest in historical methods has arisen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline and more from internal quarrels among historians history once revered its affinity to literature and philosophy，the emerging social sciences seemed to afford greater opportunities for asking new questions and providing rewarding approaches to an understanding of the science methodologies had to be adapted to a discipline governed by the primacy of historical sources rather than the imperatives of the contemporary world.　　（73）During this transfer，traditional historical methods were augmented by additional methodologies designed to interpret the new forms of evidence in the historical study. Methodology is a term that remains inherently ambiguous in the historical profession.　?。?4）There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical ，especially those so blinded by their research interests that they have been accused oftunnel method，frequently fall victim to thetechnicist mon in the natural sciences，the technicist fallacy mistakenly identifies the discipline as a whole with certain parts of its technical implementation.　?。?5）It applies equally to traditional historians who view history as only the external and internal criticism of to social science historians who equate their activity with specific techniques.　　（71）幾乎每個(gè)歷史學(xué)家對(duì)史學(xué)都有自己的界定，但現(xiàn)代史學(xué)家的實(shí)踐最趨于認(rèn)為歷史學(xué)是試圖重現(xiàn)過去的重大史實(shí)并對(duì)其做出解釋?？梢姟璱t was thefarthest that scientists had been able to look into the past…直譯為:…它是科學(xué)家對(duì)過去所能看到的最遙遠(yuǎn)的東西…。5.（71）題中的look（=see）意為:看見，作及物動(dòng)詞用，其賓語是關(guān)系代詞that。例如:She had a queer feeling that the room was closing in on　　her.（她有一種奇特的感覺，仿佛那房間從四面八方把她緊緊圍住了。）　　 mass of意為一大塊（團(tuán)，堆）。許多天體物理學(xué)家七八年來一直確信這一論說是正確的。膨脹說告訴我們，早在很久以前，宇宙的體積在不到一秒鐘內(nèi)被一種反引力驅(qū)動(dòng)而發(fā)生了無數(shù)倍的膨脹。（73）天體物理學(xué)家使用南極陸基探測(cè)器及球工儀器，正越來越近地觀測(cè)這些云系，也許不久會(huì)報(bào)告他們的觀測(cè)結(jié)果?！　obe衛(wèi)星設(shè)計(jì)的目的就是觀察這些最大的物體結(jié)構(gòu)，但宇航員還想看到更為微小的熱點(diǎn)，即像星紗中的星團(tuán)和超星團(tuán)這樣一些局部物體的粒子。根據(jù)這一理論，宇宙的形成是由一團(tuán)亞微觀的、極其稠密的純能量團(tuán)朝四面八方向外發(fā)散，隨著放出輻射線，濃縮成粒子，然后形成氣體原子。研究人員發(fā)現(xiàn)的宇宙云既令人驚訝，又是人們所期待的，因?yàn)槊绹?guó)國(guó)家航空航天局的宇宙背景探測(cè)者Cobe號(hào)衛(wèi)星已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)了劃時(shí)代的證據(jù)，證明宇宙確實(shí)起源于最早的一次爆炸，即人們一直所稱的大爆炸（此理論認(rèn)為宇宙起源于一大塊能量）。（71）但更為重要的是，這是科學(xué)家所能觀測(cè)到的最遙遠(yuǎn)的過去的景象，因?yàn)樗麄兛吹降氖?50億年前宇宙云的形狀和結(jié)構(gòu)。這種本能應(yīng)該得到鼓勵(lì)，而不應(yīng)遭到嘲笑。看到動(dòng)物受苦足以使大多數(shù)人產(chǎn)生同情感。道德推理的最初級(jí)形式，和學(xué)習(xí)爬行的論理一樣，是針對(duì)自身利益去權(quán)衡他人利益。這種看法似乎是大膽的邏輯推理。任何關(guān)心動(dòng)物疾苦的想法都是錯(cuò)誤的，因?yàn)樗褢?yīng)該用來關(guān)心其他人的同情感用到關(guān)心動(dòng)物的身上。　　許多人否認(rèn)這種提法。這是一處錯(cuò)誤的選擇。這種認(rèn)識(shí)不僅剝奪了動(dòng)物的權(quán)利，而且也剝奪了