【正文】 s products and production processes, knowledge gained through intensified onthejob training. Onthejob training programs can be distinguished by the level of centralization at which they occur. Most onthejob training in the United States is decentralized, occurring at or near the job itself. Centralized training departments generally play a more important role in larger firms, but even in these cases it is estimated that more than half of onthejob training takes place at a decentralized level. The extent of decentralization depends also on the generality of knowledge that the firm desires in an employee, and this depends on whether the employee is among the managerial, technical, marketing, or production occupations. The Japaneseinfluenced emphasis on quality control after the 1970s brought with it a greater emphasis on decentralized onthejob training. This resulted from the implementation of quality circles, in which production workers assume a much larger role in quality control. Previously in the United States, quality control had been largely the domain of management. In spite of the Japanese influence, however, . firms continue to rely less on onthejob training and more on formal education for management training than do Japanese firms. Masters in Business Administration (MBA) degrees provide an important credential for managers in the ., whereas only one Japanese university offers a degree similar to an MBA Japanese managers often begin their careers by doing production work and are trained by being rotated through a broad range of a firm39。s time is spent in onthejob training during the first 90 days of employment, that productivity of experienced workers assigned to train new workers may decrease during the training period, and that new workers may make expensive mistakes, according to William J. Rothwell and . Kazanas in Improving OntheJob Training. Hence, it behooves panies to design and implement systematic training programs. One of the first structured onthejob training programs was launched during World War I in the shipbuilding industry by Charles Skipper R. Allen, who based the program on the ideas of the psychologist Johann Friedrich Herbart. Allen sought to make training more efficient by having trainees undergo four steps: 1. Preparation: show workers what they are required to do. 2. Presentation: tell workers what they are required to do and why they are required to do it. 3. Application: let workers perform the required tasks. 4. Inspection: provide feedback, informing workers of what they have done right and what they have done wrong. Onthejob training received renewed interest during World War 11 when Allen39。對這些節(jié)目越來越多，而且強(qiáng)調(diào)對學(xué)徒的更多新技術(shù)方面的教育。這些程序通常在提供大學(xué)學(xué)分的在職培訓(xùn)從事學(xué)徒，這些學(xué)徒在大學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)相關(guān)教育。 聯(lián)合培訓(xùn)計劃也建立了工會與高等教育機(jī)構(gòu)聯(lián)合學(xué)徒培訓(xùn)的形式。這是基于對技術(shù)變革的日新月異，往往需要新的工作組織形式，如靈活的，即時生產(chǎn)。聯(lián)合方案提供對一般工人的教育以及包括實(shí)習(xí)訓(xùn)練，認(rèn)證和許可的在職培訓(xùn)。德國和日本都比美國的員工周轉(zhuǎn)率低，但是在這個意義上說，美國公司不能確保員工的在職培訓(xùn)因?yàn)榕嘤?xùn)的投資回報率較高。 不同于日本制，德國學(xué)員一般都不能在企業(yè)中接受培訓(xùn)。雖然職業(yè)教育是由聯(lián)邦政府機(jī)構(gòu)監(jiān)督，培訓(xùn)主要發(fā)生在企業(yè)內(nèi)部。大約百分之80 的德國職業(yè)教育課程已經(jīng)完成，在職培訓(xùn)是他們的 400 職業(yè)之一。工商管理碩士（ MBA）的學(xué)位，是在美國提供管理者的一個重要憑據(jù)，而只有一個日本的大學(xué)提供的 MBA 學(xué)位類似于日本的管理者往往開始做生產(chǎn)工作，并通過自己的事業(yè)正在接受培訓(xùn)，通過在廣泛的范圍內(nèi)輪換一 個企業(yè)的行動，直到他們成為高層管理人員。以前在美國，在很大程度上是質(zhì)量控制管理的領(lǐng)域。日本，影響了質(zhì)量控制的