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【正文】 he decision to not initiate any other phases. .2 PhasetoPhase Relationships When large or plex projects are multiphased, the phases are part of a generally sequential process designed to ensure proper control of the project and attain the desired product, service, or result. However, there are situations when a project might benefit from overlapping or concurrent phases. There are three basic types of phasetophase relationships: ? A sequential relationship, where a phase can only start once the previous phase is plete. Figure 24 shows an example of a project with entirely sequential phases. The stepbystep nature of this approach reduces uncertainty, but may eliminate options for reducing the schedule. ? An overlapping relationship, where the phase starts prior to pletion of the previous one (see Figure 25). This can sometimes be applied as an example of the schedule pression technique called fast tracking. Overlapping phases may increase risk and can result in rework if a subsequent phase progresses before accurate information is available from the previous phase. Figure 25. Example of a Project with Overlapping Phases ? An iterative relationship, where only one subset is planned at any given time and the ?planning for the next period is carried out as work progresses on the current deliverable. ?This approach is useful in largely undefined, uncertain, or rapidly changing environments ?such as research, but it can lead to rework and reduce the ability to provide long term ?planning or scope control for the project. It also entails having all of the project team ?members (. designers, developers, etc.) available throughout the project. ?For multiphase projects, more than one phasetophase relationship could occur during ?different parts of a project. In theory, all three relationships could occur between different phases ?of an exceptionally large and plex project. ? Projects vs. Operational Work ?Organizations perform work to achieve a set of objectives. In many anizations the work ?performed can be categorized as either project or operations work. ?These two types of work share a number of characteristics as follows: ?? Performed by individuals, ?? Constrained by limited resources, ?? Planned, executed, and controlled, and ?? Performed to achieve an anization39。s strategic plan. ?Projects and operations differ primarily in that operations are ongoing and repetitive, while ?projects are temporary and unique. Although a project may span several years, it has a defined ?beginning, purpose, and end. The function of a project is to attain its objective and terminate. ?Conversely, operations work is ongoing and sustains the anization over time. Operations ?work does not terminate when its objectives are met. Instead it follows new directions to support ?the anization39。s strategic plans. ? Operations work supports the business environment in which projects function. As a result, there is a significant amount of interaction between the operations departments and the project team as they work together to achieve project goals. An example of this is when a project is created to redesign a product. The project manager may work with multiple operational managers to research consumer preferences, draw up technical specifications, build a prototype, test it, and begin manufacturing. The participation of resources from operations will vary from project to project. One example of this interaction is when individuals from operations are assigned as dedicated project resources. Their operational expertise is used to assist in the pletion of project deliverables by working with the rest of the project team to plete the project on time and on budget. Depending on the nature of the project, the deliverables may modify or contribute to the existing operations work. In this case, the operations department will integrate the deliverables into future business practices. Examples of these types of projects include, but are not limited to: ? Developing a new product or service, ? Installing products or services that require ongoing support, ? Internal projects that affect the structure, staffing levels, or culture of an anization, or ? Developing, acquiring, or enhancing an operational department39。s information system. Stakeholders Stakeholders are persons and anizations such as customers, sponsors, performing anization and the public, who are actively involved in the project or those whose interests may be positively or negatively affected by the execution, pletion, or cancellation of the project. Stakeholders may also exert influence over the project and its deliverables. The project management team must identify both internal and external stakeholders in