【導(dǎo)讀】Pre-APUnit#12. Chapters24-25. laborers.SimonBolivar. JosedeSanMartin

　　

【正文】 miliating defeat in the Crimean War. Even staunch conservatives realized that Russia was falling hopelessly behind the western European powers. Serfdom, the largest problem in czarist Russia, was a plicated issue that affected the economic, social, and political future of Russia. On March 3, 1861, Czar Alexander II issued an emancipation edict, freeing all serfs in Russia. Alexander II attempted other reforms as well, but he soon found that he could please no one. Reformers wanted more changes and a faster pace for change. Conservatives thought that the czar was trying to destroy the basic institutions of Russian society. ? A group of radicals assassinated Alexander II in 1881. His son, Alexander III, became the successor to the throne. Alexander III turned against reform and returned to the old methods of repression. Budapest was the capital city of Hungary。 In 1867 the AustroHungarian Empire was split into two separate constitutional governments (Austria and Hungary) but under one monarch, Francis Joseph. Closure Question 3: Why did Alexander III of Russia turn against the reforms of his father? (At least 1 sentence) Closure Assignment 2 ? Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 24, Section 2: 1. Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause? 2. Why did some liberals disapprove of the way LouisNapoleon ruled France after the uprisings of 1848? 3. Why did Alexander III of Russia turn against the reforms of his father? (At least 1 sentence) Russification ? The goal of the Romanov Dynasty beginning in the 1860s to force Russian culture on all the ethnic groups within the Russian Empire. School instruction was required to be entirely in Russian, even in the primary grades, and conversion to the Eastern Orthodox Church was encouraged. This policy actually strengthened ethnic nationalist feelings and helped to disunify Russia. ? During the 1800s, nationalism fueled efforts to build nationstates. Nationalists were not loyal to kings, but to their people – to those who shared mon bonds. Nationalism believed that people of a single “nationality”, or ancestry, should unite under a single government. However, people who wanted to restore the old order from before the French Revolution saw nationalism as a force for disunity. Gradually, authoritarian rulers began to see that nationalism could also unify masses of people. They soon began to use nationalist feelings for their own purposes. They built nationstates in areas where they remained firmly in control. ? Three aging empires – The Austrian Empire of the Hapsburgs, the Russian Empire of the Romanovs, and the Ottoman Empire of the Turks – contained a mixture of ethnic groups. Control of land and ethnic groups moved back and fort between these empires, depending on victories or defeats in war and on royal marriages. When nationalism emerged in the 19th century, ethnic unrest threatened and eventually toppled these empires. In addition to the Russians themselves, the czar ruled over 22 million Ukrainians, 8 million Poles, and smaller numbers of Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Jews, Romanians, Georgians, Armenians, Turks, and others. Each group had its own culture. The weakened czarist empire finally could not withstand the double shock of World War I and the munist revolution. The last Romanov czar gave up his power in 1917. Closure Question 1: How can nationalism be both a unifying and a disunifying force? (At least 1 sentence) Camillo di Cavour ? Prime minister to King Victor Emmanuel II of the Italian province of Sardinia. A cunning statesman, Cavour used skillful diplomacy and wellchosen alliances to gain control of northern Italy for Sardinia. Through an alliance with Louis Napoleon of France in 1858, Sardinia succeeded in driving Austria from northern Italy. ? Italian nationalists looked for leadership from the kingdom of PiedmontSardinia, the largest and most powerful of the Italian states. The kingdom had adopted a liberal constitution in 1848. So, to the liberal Italian middle classes, unification under PiedmontSardinia seemed a good plan. In 1852, Sardinia’s king, Victor Emmanuel II, named Count Camillo di Cavour as his prime minister. Cavour was a cunning statesman who worked tirelessly to expand PiedmontSardinia’s power. Using skillful diplomacy and wellchosen alliances he set about gaining control of northern Italy for Sardinia. ? Cavour realized that the greatest roadblock to annexing northern Italy was Austria. In 1858, the French emperor Napoleon III agreed to help drive Austria out of the northern Italian provinces. Cavour then provoked a war with the Austrians. A bined FrenchSardinian army succeeded in taking all of northern Italy, except Veia. As Cavour was uniting northern Italy, he secretly started helping nationalist rebels in southern Italy. In May 1860, a small army of Italian nationalists led by a bold and visionary soldier, Giuseppe Garibaldi, captured Sicily. In battle, Garibaldi always wore a bright red shirt, as did his followers. As a result, they became known as the Red Shirts. From Sicily, Garibaldi and his forces crossed to the Italian mainland and marched north. Eventually, Garibaldi agreed to unite southern areas he had conquered with the kingdom of PiedmontSardinia. Cavour arranged for King Victor Emmanuel II to meet Garibaldi in Naples. “The Red One” willingly agreed to step aside and let the Sardinian king rule. Giuseppe Garibaldi ? Italian patriot who liberated Naples and Sicily from Austrian rule, then turned over control of Southern Italy to King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia in 1870, establishing a unified, independent Italy. ? Piedmont is a northern Italian state which, under the leadership of King Victor Emmanuel II, made an alliance with France in 1859 to revol