【正文】 ion of the empire. In this plebiscite, 97% responded with a yes vote. On December 2, 1852, LouisNapoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III, Emperor of France. The government of Napoleon III was clearly authoritarian. As chief of state, Napoleon III controlled the armed forces, police and civil service. Only he could introduce legislation and declare war. The Legislative Corps gave an appearance of representative government, because the members of the group were elected by universal male suffrage for 6year terms. However, they could neither initiate legislation nor affect the budget. Closure Question 1: Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause? NationState ? Government of a region by people who share a mon culture and history. Nationstates defend the territory and way of life of the people, representing the nation to the rest of the world. ? A multinational state is a collection of different peoples living in the same country. The Austrian Empire included Germans, Czechs, Magyars (Hungarians), Slovaks, Romanians, Slovenes, Poles, Croats, Serbians, Ruthenians (Ukranians), and Italians. Prague was a major city populated by the Czech peoples but ruled by Austria。 economic gain. Peninsulares were at the top of the Latin American class structure, holding all important positions. ? Creoles – Descendants of Europeans who were born in Latin America. Creoles were the leaders of Latin American revolutions, favoring enlightenment ideals and opposing European domination of their trade. ? Mulattos – People of mixed European and African descent who made up the lowest class in Latin American society. ? By the end of the 18th century, the political ideals stemming from the revolution in North America put European control of Latin America in peril. Latin America’s social class structure played a big role in how the 19th century revolutions occurred and what they achieved. Social classes divided colonial Latin America. Peninsulares were Spanish and Portuguese officials who resided temporarily in Latin America for political and economic gain. At the top of the class structure, peninsulares dominated Latin America. They held all important positions. Creoles controlled land and business and resented the peninsulares. The peninsulares regarded the creoles as secondclass citizens. Mestizos were the largest group. They worked as servants or laborers. Simon Bolivar ? A wealthy Venezuelan Creole, Bolivar led a volunteer army of revolutionaries in a struggle for independence from Spain from 1811 to 1822. Bolivar is revered as the “George Washington of South America”. He hoped to unite the Spanish colonies of South America into a single country called Grand Colombia but was unable to do so as a result of geographic and political obstacles. ? Even though they could not hold high public office, creoles were the least oppressed of those born in LatinAmerica. They were also the best educated. In fact, many wealthy young creoles traveled to Europe for their education. In Europe, they read about and adopted Enlightenment ideas. When they returned to Latin America, they brought ideas of revolution with them. Napoleon’s conquest of Spain in 1808 triggered revolts in the Spanish colonies. Removing Spain’s King Ferdinand VII, Napoleon made his brother Joseph king of Spain. Many creoles might have supported a Spanish king. However, they felt no loyalty to a king imposed by the French. Creoles, recalling Locke’s idea of the consent of the governed, argued that when the real king was removed, power shifted to the people. In 1810, rebellion broke out in several parts of Latin America. ? Simon Bolivar’s native Venezuela declared its independence from Spain in 1811. But the struggle for independence had only begun. Bolivar’s volunteer army of revolutionaries suffered numerous defeats. Twice Bolivar had to go into exile. A turning point came in August 1819. Bolivar led over 2,000 soldiers on a daring march through the Andes into what is now Colombia. Coming from this direction, he took the Spanish army in Bogota pletely by surprise and won a decisive victory. By 1821, Bolivar had won Venezuela’s independence. He then marched south into Ecuador. In Ecuador, Bolivar finally met Jose de San Martin. Together they would decide the future of the Latin American revolutionary movement. Jose de San Martin ? Though native to Argentina, Martin had spent most of his life serving in the Spanish army in Europe. He returned to South America following Napoleon’s conquest of Spain, leading revolutionary forces to oust European armies from Argentina, Chile, and finally, in 1824, Peru. ? Jose de San Martin believed that the Spaniards must be removed from all of South America if any South American nation was to be free. Bolivar began the struggle for independence in Venezuela in 1810. He then went on to lead revolts in New Granada (Colombia) and Ecuador. By 1810, the forces of San Martin had liberated Argentina from Spanish authority. In January 1817, San Martin led his fortress over the Andes to attack the Spanish in Chile. The journey was an amazing feat, 2/3 of the pack mules and horses died during the trip. Soldiers suffered from lack of oxygen and severe cold while crossing mountain passes. The Andes mountains were more than two miles above sea level. ? The arrival of San Martin’s forces in Chile pletely surprised the Spaniards. Spanish forces were badly defeated at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12, 1817. In 1821 San Martin moved on to Lima, Peru, the center of Spanish authority. San Martin was convinced that he could not plete the liberation of Peru alone. He weled the arrival of Simon Bolivar and his forces. Bolivar, the “Liberator of Venezuela,” took on the task of crushing the last significant Spanish army at Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. ? By the end of 1824,