【正文】 In 1848 Czechs attempted to revolt against Austria to establish an independent nation but were defeated by the Austrians. ? The Austrian Empire had many problems. Only the Germanspeaking Hapsburg dynasty held the empire together. The Germans , though only a quarter of the population, played a leading role in governing the Austrian Empire. In March 1848, demonstrations erupted in the major cities. To calm the demonstrators, the Hapsburg court dismissed Metternich, the Austrian foreign minister, who fled to England. In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control of the capital and demanded a liberal constitution. To appease the revolutionaries, the government gave Hungary its own legislature. In Bohemia, the Czechs clamored for their own government. ? Austrian officials had made concessions to appease the revolutionaries but were determined to reestablish their control over the empire. In June 1848, Austrian military forces crushed the Czech rebels in Prague. By the end of October, the rebels in Vienna had been defeated as well. With the help of a Russian army of 140,000 men, the Hungarian revolutionaries were finally subdued in 1849. The revolutions in the Austrian Empire had failed. ? In 1848, a revolt broke out against the Austrians in Lombardy and Veia Italy. Revolutionaries in other Italian states also took up arms and sought to create liberal constitutions and a unified Italy. By 1849, however, the Austrians had reestablished plete control over Lombardy and Veia. The old order also prevailed in the rest of Italy. Throughout Europe in 1848, popular revolts started upheavals that had led to liberal constitutions and liberal governments. However, moderate liberals and more radical revolutionaries were soon divided over their goals and so conservative rule was reestablished. The Balkans ? Geographic region along the eastern Mediterranean Sea which includes all or part of presentday Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and the former Yugoslavia. The entire region had been controlled by the Ottoman Empire。 economic gain. Peninsulares were at the top of the Latin American class structure, holding all important positions. ? Creoles – Descendants of Europeans who were born in Latin America. Creoles were the leaders of Latin American revolutions, favoring enlightenment ideals and opposing European domination of their trade. ? Mulattos – People of mixed European and African descent who made up the lowest class in Latin American society. ? By the end of the 18th century, the political ideals stemming from the revolution in North America put European control of Latin America in peril. Latin America’s social class structure played a big role in how the 19th century revolutions occurred and what they achieved. Social classes divided colonial Latin America. Peninsulares were Spanish and Portuguese officials who resided temporarily in Latin America for political and economic gain. At the top of the class structure, peninsulares dominated Latin America. They held all important positions. Creoles controlled land and business and resented the peninsulares. The peninsulares regarded the creoles as secondclass citizens. Mestizos were the largest group. They worked as servants or laborers. Simon Bolivar ? A wealthy Venezuelan Creole, Bolivar led a volunteer army of revolutionaries in a struggle for independence from Spain from 1811 to 1822. Bolivar is revered as the “George Washington of South America”. He hoped to unite the Spanish colonies of South America into a single country called Grand Colombia but was unable to do so as a result of geographic and political obstacles. ? Even though they could not hold high public office, creoles were the least oppressed of those born in LatinAmerica. They were also the best educated. In fact, many wealthy young creoles traveled to Europe for their education. In Europe, they read about and adopted Enlightenment ideas. When they returned to Latin America, they brought ideas of revolution with them. Napoleon’s conquest of Spain in 1808 triggered revolts in the Spanish colonies. Removing Spain’s King Ferdinand VII, Napoleon made his brother Joseph king of Spain. Many creoles might have supported a Spanish king. However, they felt no loyalty to a king imposed by the French. Creoles, recalling Locke’s idea of the consent of the governed, argued that when the real king was removed, power shifted to the people. In 1810, rebellion broke out in several parts of Latin America. ? Simon Bolivar’s native Venezuela declared its independence from Spain in 1811. But the struggle for independence had only begun. Bolivar’s volunteer army of revolutionaries suffered numerous defeats. Twice Bolivar had to go into exile. A turning point came in August 1819. Bolivar led over 2,000 soldiers on a daring march through the Andes into what is now Colombia. Coming from this direction, he took the Spanish army in Bogota pletely by surprise and won a decisive victory. By 1821, Bolivar had won Venezuela’s independence. He then marched south into Ecuador. In Ecuador, Bolivar finally met Jose de San Martin. Together they would decide the future of the Latin American revolutionary movement. Jose de San Martin ? Though native to Argentina, Martin had spent most of his life serving in the Spanish army in Europe. He returned to South America following Napoleon’s conquest of Spain, leading revolutionary forces to oust European armies from Argentina, Chile, and finally, in 1824, Peru. ? Jose de San Martin believed that the Spaniards must be removed from all of South America if any South American nation was to be free. Bolivar began the struggle for independence in Venezuela in 1810. He then went on to lead revolts in New Granada (Colombia) and Ecuador. By 1810, the forces of San Martin had liberated Argentina from Spanish authority. In January 1817, S