【正文】 Portuguese officials who lived temporarily in Latin America for political amp。 Conservatives favor obedience to political authority, support organized religion, and hate revolutions. ? Eventually, the great powers adopted a principle of intervention. According to this principle, the great powers had the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions in order to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones. Refusing to accept the principle, Britain argued that the great powers should not interfere in the internal affairs of other states. The other great powers, however, used military forces to crush the revolutions in Spain and Italy, as well as to restore monarchs to their thrones. ? Between 1815 and 1830, conservative governments throughout Europe worked to maintain the old order. However, powerful forces of change – known as liberalism and nationalism – were also at work. Nationalism was an even more powerful force for change in the 19th century than was liberalism. Nationalism arose when people began to identify themselves as part of a munity defined by a distinctive language, mon institution, and customs. This munity is called a nation. In earlier centuries, people’s loyalty went to a king or to their town or region. In the 19th century, people began to feel that their chief loyalty was to the nation. ? Conservatism is based on tradition and a belief in the value of social stability. Most conservatives at that time favored obedience to political authority. They also believed that organized religion was crucial to keep order in society. Conservatives hated revolutions and were unwilling to accept demands from people who wanted either individual rights or representative governments. To maintain the new balance of power, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria (and later France) agreed to meet at times. The purpose of these conferences was to take steps needed to maintain peace in Europe. These meetings came to be called the Concert of Europe. Liberal ? Political philosophy based on Enlightenment ideas which argues that people should be as free as possible from government. ? Liberals had a mon set of political beliefs. Chief among them was the protection of civil liberties, or the basic rights of all people. These civil liberties included equality before the law and freedom of assembly, speech, and the press. Liberals believed that all these freedoms should be guaranteed by a written document such as the American Bill of Rights. Most liberals wanted religious toleration for all, as well as separation of church and state. Liberals also demanded the right of peaceful opposition to the government. They believed that a representative assembly (legislature) elected by qualified voters should make laws. ? Many liberals, then, favored government ruled by a constitution, such as in a constitutional monarchy, in which a constitution regulates a king. They believed that written constitutions would guarantee the rights they sought to preserve. Liberals did not, however, believe in a democracy in which everyone had a right to vote. They thought that the right to vote and hold office should be open only to men of property. Liberalism, then, was tied to middleclass men, especially industrial middleclass men, who wanted voting rights for themselves so they could share power with the landowning classes. The liberals feared mob rule, and had little desire to let the lower class share the power. ? The French monarchy was finally overthrown in 1848. A group of moderate and radical republicans set up a provisional, or temporary, government. The republicans were people who wished France to be a republic – a government in which leaders are elected. The provisional government called for the election of representatives to a Constituent Assembly that would draw up a new constitution. Election was to be by a universal male suffrage. Closure Question 1: Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause? Liberalism Cartoon… Radical ? Political philosophy developed in the early 1800s which favors drastic change to extend democracy to all people. Radicals believed that governments should practice the ideals of the French Revolution – liberty, equality, and brotherhood. ? In the first half of the 19th century, nationalism found a strong ally in liberalism. Most liberals believed that freedom could only be possible in people who ruled themselves. Each group of people should have its own state. No state should attempt to dominate another state. The association with liberalism meant that nationalism had a wider scope. Beginning in 1830, the forces of change – liberalism and nationalism – began to break through the conservative domination of Europe. In France, liberals overthrew the Bourbon monarch Charles X in 1830 and established a constitutional monarchy. Political support for the new monarch, Louis Philippe, a cousin of Charles X, came from the uppermiddle class. ? In the same year, 1830, 3 more revolutions occurred. Nationalism was the chief force in all 3 of them. Belgium, which had been annexed to the former Dutch Republic in 1815, rebelled and created an Independent state. In Poland and Italy, which were both ruled by foreign powers, efforts to break free were less successful. Russians crushed the Polish attempt to establish an independent Polish nation. Meanwhile Austrian troops marched south and put down revolts in a number of Italian states. ? The conservative order still dominated much of Europe as the midpoint of the 19th century approached. However, the forces of liberalism and nationalism continued to grow. These forces of change erupted once more in the revolutions of 1848. Revolution in France once again sparked revolution in other countries. Severe economic problems beginning in 1846 brought untold hardship in France