【正文】 government. They believed that a representative assembly (legislature) elected by qualified voters should make laws. ? Many liberals, then, favored government ruled by a constitution, such as in a constitutional monarchy, in which a constitution regulates a king. They believed that written constitutions would guarantee the rights they sought to preserve. Liberals did not, however, believe in a democracy in which everyone had a right to vote. They thought that the right to vote and hold office should be open only to men of property. Liberalism, then, was tied to middleclass men, especially industrial middleclass men, who wanted voting rights for themselves so they could share power with the landowning classes. The liberals feared mob rule, and had little desire to let the lower class share the power. ? The French monarchy was finally overthrown in 1848. A group of moderate and radical republicans set up a provisional, or temporary, government. The republicans were people who wished France to be a republic – a government in which leaders are elected. The provisional government called for the election of representatives to a Constituent Assembly that would draw up a new constitution. Election was to be by a universal male suffrage. Closure Question 1: Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause? Liberalism Cartoon… Radical ? Political philosophy developed in the early 1800s which favors drastic change to extend democracy to all people. Radicals believed that governments should practice the ideals of the French Revolution – liberty, equality, and brotherhood. ? In the first half of the 19th century, nationalism found a strong ally in liberalism. Most liberals believed that freedom could only be possible in people who ruled themselves. Each group of people should have its own state. No state should attempt to dominate another state. The association with liberalism meant that nationalism had a wider scope. Beginning in 1830, the forces of change – liberalism and nationalism – began to break through the conservative domination of Europe. In France, liberals overthrew the Bourbon monarch Charles X in 1830 and established a constitutional monarchy. Political support for the new monarch, Louis Philippe, a cousin of Charles X, came from the uppermiddle class. ? In the same year, 1830, 3 more revolutions occurred. Nationalism was the chief force in all 3 of them. Belgium, which had been annexed to the former Dutch Republic in 1815, rebelled and created an Independent state. In Poland and Italy, which were both ruled by foreign powers, efforts to break free were less successful. Russians crushed the Polish attempt to establish an independent Polish nation. Meanwhile Austrian troops marched south and put down revolts in a number of Italian states. ? The conservative order still dominated much of Europe as the midpoint of the 19th century approached. However, the forces of liberalism and nationalism continued to grow. These forces of change erupted once more in the revolutions of 1848. Revolution in France once again sparked revolution in other countries. Severe economic problems beginning in 1846 brought untold hardship in France to the lowermiddle class, workers, and peasants. At the same time, members of the middle class clamored for the right to vote. The government of Louis Philippe refused to make changes, and opposition grew. Closure Question 1: Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause? Nationalism ? The belief that people’s greatest loyalty should not be to a king or an empire but to a nation of people who share a mon culture and history. ? Nationalism did not bee a popular force for change until the French Revolution. From then on, nationalists came to believe that each nationality should have its own government. Thus, the Germans, who were separated into many principalities, wanted national unity in a German nationstate with one central government. Subject peoples, such as the Hungarians, wanted the right to establish their own governments rather than be subject to the Austrian empire. Nationalism was a threat to the existing political order. A united Germany, for example, would upset the balance of power set up at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. At the same time, an independent Hungarian state would mean the breakup of the Austrian Empire. ? Great Britain managed to avoid the revolutionary upheavals of the first half of the 19th century. In 1815, aristocratic landowning classes, which dominated both houses of Parliament, governed Great Britain. In 1832, Parliament passed a bill that increased the number of male voters. The new voters were chiefly members of the industrial middle class. By giving the industrial middle class an interest in ruling, Britain avoided revolution in 1848. In the 1850s and 1860s, Parliament continued to make social and political reforms that helped the country to remain stable. However, despite reforms, Britain saw a rising Irish nationalist movement demanding increased Irish control over Irish internal affairs. Another reason for Britain’s stability was its continuing economic growth. By 1850, real wages of workers rose significantly, enabling the working classes to share the prosperity. ? In France, events after the revolution of 1848 moved toward the restoration of the monarchy. In 1848, LouisNapoleon returned to the people to ask for the restoration of the empire. In this plebiscite, 97% responded with a yes vote. On December 2, 1852, LouisNapoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III, Emperor of France. The government of Napoleon III was clearly authoritarian. As chief of state, Napoleon III controlled the armed forces, police and civil service. Only he could introduce legislation and declare war. The Legislative Corps gave an appearance of representative government