【正文】 an Martin led his fortress over the Andes to attack the Spanish in Chile. The journey was an amazing feat, 2/3 of the pack mules and horses died during the trip. Soldiers suffered from lack of oxygen and severe cold while crossing mountain passes. The Andes mountains were more than two miles above sea level. ? The arrival of San Martin’s forces in Chile pletely surprised the Spaniards. Spanish forces were badly defeated at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12, 1817. In 1821 San Martin moved on to Lima, Peru, the center of Spanish authority. San Martin was convinced that he could not plete the liberation of Peru alone. He weled the arrival of Simon Bolivar and his forces. Bolivar, the “Liberator of Venezuela,” took on the task of crushing the last significant Spanish army at Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. ? By the end of 1824, Peru, Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile had all bee free of Spain. Earlier, in 1822, the prince regent of Brazil had declared Brazil’s independence from Portugal. The Central American states had bee independent in 1823. In 1823 and 1839, they divided into five republics: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. Miguel Hidalgo / Jose Maria Morelos ? Miguel Hidalgo – “The Father of Mexico”。 In 1867 the AustroHungarian Empire was split into two separate constitutional governments (Austria and Hungary) but under one monarch, Francis Joseph. Closure Question 3: Why did Alexander III of Russia turn against the reforms of his father? (At least 1 sentence) Closure Assignment 2 ? Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 24, Section 2: 1. Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause? 2. Why did some liberals disapprove of the way LouisNapoleon ruled France after the uprisings of 1848? 3. Why did Alexander III of Russia turn against the reforms of his father? (At least 1 sentence) Russification ? The goal of the Romanov Dynasty beginning in the 1860s to force Russian culture on all the ethnic groups within the Russian Empire. School instruction was required to be entirely in Russian, even in the primary grades, and conversion to the Eastern Orthodox Church was encouraged. This policy actually strengthened ethnic nationalist feelings and helped to disunify Russia. ? During the 1800s, nationalism fueled efforts to build nationstates. Nationalists were not loyal to kings, but to their people – to those who shared mon bonds. Nationalism believed that people of a single “nationality”, or ancestry, should unite under a single government. However, people who wanted to restore the old order from before the French Revolution saw nationalism as a force for disunity. Gradually, authoritarian rulers began to see that nationalism could also unify masses of people. They soon began to use nationalist feelings for their own purposes. They built nationstates in areas where they remained firmly in control. ? Three aging empires – The Austrian Empire of the Hapsburgs, the Russian Empire of the Romanovs, and the Ottoman Empire of the Turks – contained a mixture of ethnic groups. Control of land and ethnic groups moved back and fort between these empires, depending on victories or defeats in war and on royal marriages. When nationalism emerged in the 19th century, ethnic unrest threatened and eventually toppled these empires. In addition to the Russians themselves, the czar ruled over 22 million Ukrainians, 8 million Poles, and smaller numbers of Lithuanians, Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Jews, Romanians, Georgians, Armenians, Turks, and others. Each group had its own culture. The weakened czarist empire finally could not withstand the double shock of World War I and the munist revolution. The last Romanov czar gave up his power in 1917. Closure Question 1: How can nationalism be both a unifying and a disunifying force? (At least 1 sentence) Camillo di Cavour ? Prime minister to King Victor Emmanuel II of the Italian province of Sardinia. A cunning statesman, Cavour used skillful diplomacy and wellchosen alliances to gain control of northern Italy for Sardinia. Through an alliance with Louis Napoleon of France in 1858, Sardinia succeeded in driving Austria from northern Italy. ? Italian nationalists looked for leadership from the kingdom of PiedmontSardinia, the largest and most powerful of the Italian states. The kingdom had adopted a liberal constitution in 1848. So, to the liberal Italian middle classes, unification under PiedmontSardinia seemed a good plan. In 1852, Sardinia’s king, Victor Emmanuel II, named Count Camillo di Cavour as his prime minister. Cavour was a cunning statesman who worked tirelessly to expand PiedmontSardinia’s power. Using skillful diplomacy and wellchosen alliances he set about gaining control of northern Italy for Sardinia. ? Cavour realized that the greatest roadblock to annexing northern Italy was Austria. In 1858, the French emperor Napoleon III agreed to help drive Austria out of the northern Italian provinces. Cavour then provoked a war with the Austrians. A bined FrenchSardinian army succeeded in taking all of northern Italy, except Veia. As Cavour was uniting northern Italy, he secretly started helping nationalist rebels in southern Italy. In May 1860, a small army of Italian nationalists led by a bold and visionary soldier, Giuseppe Garibaldi, captured Sicily. In battle, Garibaldi always wore a bright red shirt, as did his followers. As a result, they became known as the Red Shirts. From Sicily, Garibaldi and his forces crossed to the Italian mainland and marched north. Eventually, Garibaldi agreed to unite southern areas he had conquered with the kingdom of PiedmontSardinia. Cavour arranged for King Victor Emmanuel II to meet Garibaldi in Naples. “The Red One” willingly agre