【文章內容簡介】 f of the 19th century, nationalism found a strong ally in liberalism. Most liberals believed that freedom could only be possible in people who ruled themselves. Each group of people should have its own state. No state should attempt to dominate another state. The association with liberalism meant that nationalism had a wider scope. Beginning in 1830, the forces of change – liberalism and nationalism – began to break through the conservative domination of Europe. In France, liberals overthrew the Bourbon monarch Charles X in 1830 and established a constitutional monarchy. Political support for the new monarch, Louis Philippe, a cousin of Charles X, came from the uppermiddle class. ? In the same year, 1830, 3 more revolutions occurred. Nationalism was the chief force in all 3 of them. Belgium, which had been annexed to the former Dutch Republic in 1815, rebelled and created an Independent state. In Poland and Italy, which were both ruled by foreign powers, efforts to break free were less successful. Russians crushed the Polish attempt to establish an independent Polish nation. Meanwhile Austrian troops marched south and put down revolts in a number of Italian states. ? The conservative order still dominated much of Europe as the midpoint of the 19th century approached. However, the forces of liberalism and nationalism continued to grow. These forces of change erupted once more in the revolutions of 1848. Revolution in France once again sparked revolution in other countries. Severe economic problems beginning in 1846 brought untold hardship in France to the lowermiddle class, workers, and peasants. At the same time, members of the middle class clamored for the right to vote. The government of Louis Philippe refused to make changes, and opposition grew. Closure Question 1: Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause? Nationalism ? The belief that people’s greatest loyalty should not be to a king or an empire but to a nation of people who share a mon culture and history. ? Nationalism did not bee a popular force for change until the French Revolution. From then on, nationalists came to believe that each nationality should have its own government. Thus, the Germans, who were separated into many principalities, wanted national unity in a German nationstate with one central government. Subject peoples, such as the Hungarians, wanted the right to establish their own governments rather than be subject to the Austrian empire. Nationalism was a threat to the existing political order. A united Germany, for example, would upset the balance of power set up at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. At the same time, an independent Hungarian state would mean the breakup of the Austrian Empire. ? Great Britain managed to avoid the revolutionary upheavals of the first half of the 19th century. In 1815, aristocratic landowning classes, which dominated both houses of Parliament, governed Great Britain. In 1832, Parliament passed a bill that increased the number of male voters. The new voters were chiefly members of the industrial middle class. By giving the industrial middle class an interest in ruling, Britain avoided revolution in 1848. In the 1850s and 1860s, Parliament continued to make social and political reforms that helped the country to remain stable. However, despite reforms, Britain saw a rising Irish nationalist movement demanding increased Irish control over Irish internal affairs. Another reason for Britain’s stability was its continuing economic growth. By 1850, real wages of workers rose significantly, enabling the working classes to share the prosperity. ? In France, events after the revolution of 1848 moved toward the restoration of the monarchy. In 1848, LouisNapoleon returned to the people to ask for the restoration of the empire. In this plebiscite, 97% responded with a yes vote. On December 2, 1852, LouisNapoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III, Emperor of France. The government of Napoleon III was clearly authoritarian. As chief of state, Napoleon III controlled the armed forces, police and civil service. Only he could introduce legislation and declare war. The Legislative Corps gave an appearance of representative government, because the members of the group were elected by universal male suffrage for 6year terms. However, they could neither initiate legislation nor affect the budget. Closure Question 1: Why might liberals and radicals join together in a nationalist cause? NationState ? Government of a region by people who share a mon culture and history. Nationstates defend the territory and way of life of the people, representing the nation to the rest of the world. ? A multinational state is a collection of different peoples living in the same country. The Austrian Empire included Germans, Czechs, Magyars (Hungarians), Slovaks, Romanians, Slovenes, Poles, Croats, Serbians, Ruthenians (Ukranians), and Italians. Prague was a major city populated by the Czech peoples but ruled by Austria。 In 1848 Czechs attempted to revolt against Austria to establish an independent nation but were defeated by the Austrians. ? The Austrian Empire had many problems. Only the Germanspeaking Hapsburg dynasty held the empire together. The Germans , though only a quarter of the population, played a leading role in governing the Austrian Empire. In March 1848, demonstrations erupted in the major cities. To calm the demonstrators, the Hapsburg court dismissed Metternich, the Austrian foreign minister, who fled to England. In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control of the capital and demanded a liberal constitution. To appease the revolutionaries, the government gave Hungary its own legislature. In Bohemia, the Czechs clamored for their own government. ? Austrian officials had made concessions to appease the revolutionaries but were determined t