【正文】 al hypotheses A. statistics (統(tǒng)計(jì)量）and parametres (總體參數(shù)） a. When calculations are made to describe a sample sample they are called statistics. X and SD b. When the same calculations were actually done for the entire population, they would be called parametres. μandσ B. Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis In any study there should be at least one null hypothesis and one alternative hypothesis for each pair variables being studied.(2) Select an alpha level A. Probability (概率) and confidence levels（置信度） a. Probability: in statistics, a concept related to chance（偶然性)。 is used to establish levels of confidence related to individual measures and hypothesis testing (Charles, C. M. amp。 Mertler, C. A. 2004: 384)b. Confidence levels: indicating the probability that the population lies within certain specified boundaries. (ibid)(概率也常常定義為一種置信度，即人們對(duì)事情發(fā)生可能性的確信程度。（見(jiàn)馬廣惠，2003：79） B. Alpha level: The probability level (significance level) that a researcher establishes as acceptable before conducting a test of significance.C. P＜.05。 P＜.01: levels of probability (significance) most frequently used by researchers when testing hypothesis. The .05 level indicates a less than 5 percent chance that a finding is occurring because of sampling error。 the .01 level indicates a less than l percent chance.( 3) Select an appropriate statistical method A. T—test a. one treatment with 2 groups or one test with 2 groups b. one group with two treatments or one group with two tests B. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Comparing more than two means, or more than two groups C. Correlation D. Chi—square (4) Compare the observed statistics and critical values A. Observed statistics: The result of the calculations, the actual figures found for the sample (Brown, 1988: 117) B. Degree of freedom: the number of observations that are free to vary, used in determining levels of probability (Charles, C. M. amp。 Mertler, C. A. 2004: 380) C. Critical value: the value that the researcher might expect to observe in the sample simply because of chance. In most cases, an observed statistic must exceed the critical value to reject the null hypothesis and thereby accept one of the alternative hypotheses. D. Directional hypothesis and non—directional hypothesis a. A directional hypothesis is known as onetailed hypothesis b. A nondirectional hypothesis is called a twotailed hypothesis■3）Examples Ⅸ Doing Research1. Develop a research question1) Determine the general topic area you’re interested in. (Nunan, 1992: 212)n The general area can emerge from one’s own particular interests, from one’s experience in the field, from reading widely, or from a bination of these.2) Formulate a research questionn The questions need to be worth asking in the first place, and capable of being answered.3) Develop a question by reading around in an area you’re interested in.4) Refine and restrict the question through a review of literature.General area:Type of data:Research question(s):Type of analysis:Key constructs:Oute:Justification:Anticipated problems:Subject:Possible solutions:Procedures and Methods:Resource required:2. Literature review1) functionn A. to provide background information on the research questionn B. to identify what others have said and/or discovered about the question2) Ways to begin a literature reviewn A. prepare an annotated bibliographyn B. read books or articles reviewing a particular topic area3) Some practical advice put forward by Wiersma (1986) (cited in Nunan. 1992)How an initial area can be reformulatedOriginalAchievement and teaching techniquesRestatementA study of the effects of 3 teaching techniques on science achievement of Junior high school students.QuestionDo three different teaching techniques have different effects on science achievement scores of junior high school students.OriginalBilingual EducationRestatementA study of the nature and characteristics of bilingual education in the elementary schools of city A.What are the nature and characteristics of bilingual education as it is implemented in elementary schools of city A.3. Implement the research project1) Design your research (Samp。S. ) A. Determine the data collection methods B. Define the variables (Samp。S. ) C. Control the extraneous variables (Samp。S ) D. Procedures2) Guard against threats to reliability and validity (Nunan. 16) A. Reliability A) Definition: refers to the consistency of the results obtained from a piece of research internal B) Types: external a. Internal reliability —— consistency of data collection, analysis, and interpretation b. A case of high external reliability (Nunan, 1992, ) c. External reliability —— the extent to which independent researchers can reproduce a study and obtain results similar to those obtained in the original study.B. Validity A) Definition: the extent to which a piece of research actually investigates what the researcher purports to investigate. internalB) Types of validity validity externalb. Factors affecting internal validity ① Subject variability (Samp。S. )② Size of subject population③ Time allotted for data collection or the experiment treatment④ History, attrition, and maturationn History: refers to the possible negative effects of the passage of time on the studyn Attrition: the change of the position of the population as the time goes onn Maturation: progress of biological or psychological processes within the students⑤ Instrument/task sensitivityc. External validity:n extent to which the results can be generalize