【文章內(nèi)容簡介】 ypothesis?n A statement which describes how the researcher expects his/her research to e out . what difference or relationship he expects to find.3) Criteria for good hypotheses① state an expected relationship or difference between 2 or more variables.② state definite reasons for considering the hypothesis worthy of testing③ be testable ④ be as brief and clear as possible4) Types of hypotheses① The null hypothesisn It states that no relationship exists between the variables studied or no difference will be found between the experimental treatments.n Students with low selfconcept who participate in a program of bibliotherapy will show no change in their attitude toward school.② The Directional Hypothesis (onetailed hypothesis) It states a relationship between the variables being studied or a difference between experimental treatments that the researcher experts to emerge. (Indicating the direction of the results) Students with low selfconcept who participate in a program of bibliotherapy will show improvement in their attitude toward school.③ Nondirectional hypothesis It doesn’t specify the direction of changesStudents with low selfconcept who participate in a program of bibliotherapy will show changes in their attitude toward school.4. Setting up of the experimental group and control group 1) The experimental group 2) The control groupⅤ. SurveyA survey is a detailed inspection or investigation1. Types of survey 1) Questionnaire (written) 2) Interview (oral)2. Steps in carrying out a survey (Nunan, 1992, —141) 1) Define objectives What do we want to find out? 2) Identify target population Who do we want to know about? 3) Literature review What have others said/discovered? 4) Determine samples How many subjects should we survey? 5) Identify survey instruments How will the data be collected? 6) Design survey procedures How will the data collection be carried out? 7) Identify analytical procedures How will the data be analysed? 8) Determine reporting procedures How will results be presented? 3. Uses of questionnaires and interviews 1) To get opinions, ideas, experiences of our subjects 2) To get data on language use in a particular munity ( Bolton and Luke, 1999) 4. Questionnaire design1) Question types ① Open questions ② Closed questions (Oxford, 1990。 文秋芳, 1995)2) Question wording ① No leading questions ② No plex and confusing questions ③ No embarrassing questions④ Items should be directly referenced against one or more of the research objectives.3) Quantifying the responses —— Likert Scale5. Questionnaire administration1) Piloting — the try —out to assess its quality while it can still be revised and improved before it is used with the actual subjects in the research2) Administration.n To get a sufficient percentage of responses6. Interview An interview is a directed conversation between an investigator and an individual or group of individuals in order to get information, ( Richards, et al, 1998)1) Uses of interview① To get data on stages and processes of language acquisition② To assess proficiency ③ To investigate linguistic phenomena in munication④ To get information 2) Types of interview① structured n The researcher works through a list of set questions in a predetermined order.② Semi—structuredn The interviewer has a general idea of where he wants the interview to go, but does not enter the interview with a list of predetermined questions.③ Unstructuredn It is guided by the responses of the interviewee rather than the agenda of the researcher. The researcher exercises little or no control and the direction of the interview is relatively unpredetermined. Suggestions for planning and conducting interviews ① Prepare the interview schedulen The list of questions used by the interviewer is known as an interview schedule.② Piloting n Interview questions are piloted with a small sample of subjects before being used.③ Selection of subjectsn Efforts should be made to secure a representative sample.④ Good atmosphere⑤ Use of recordersⅥ. Classroom observation and case studies1. Observation methods n ( in research ) procedures and techniques that are based on systematic observation of events, . using audio and video recorders, check list, etc. n Observation methods are often used in studying language use and classroom events. ( Richards et al, 1998)2. Types of observation (Seliger and Shohamy, 1997) 1) Non—participant observation n the investigator observes and records or takes notes of the observed activities, but without the control or guidance of a questionnaire or other instrument.2) Participant observationn In the participant observation, the researchers are the observers。 they participate in the very act that they are describing.3) Open observation and structured observation n In open observation, the data being recorded are broad and more general. n In structured observation, the researcher uses tools (instruments) to collect data.3. Uses of observation1) To observe how learners acquire or use language. (龔少瑜、陳永培，1997）2) To study the interaction between teachers and students.3) To find out how an experiment is going on.4) To find out the effect of different classroom practices on learning oute.4. Observation scheme COLT 5. Case studies n the systematic investigation of an individual ‘case’, whether that refers to one teacher, one learner, one group, one class, or whatever.6. Methods to collect data in case studiesn a wide range of techniques can be used.1) Observation 2) Questionnaire and interview 3) Verbal report 4) Tests Ⅶ. Experimental Method 1. Definitionn an approach to educational research in which an idea or hypothesis is tested or verified by setting up situations in whic