【正文】 or minus three standard deviations (177。3 sigma) of the average center value. The relationship between the normal curve and the product and process design determines how the process variation will affect the final product. The relationship between process variation and design tolerance os shown in Figure . The 177。3 sigma range for the process variation is called the process capability, and defects occur when this process capability is wider than the design tolerance (T) or specification width marked by the lower specification limit (LSL) and upper specification limit (USL). Anything that causes the process capability to exceed either specification limit (LSL or USL) causes defects in the product.Then process capability index (Cp) , a measure of the inherent capability of the process to produce parts that meet the design requirement , is found by dividing the design tolerance by the process capability (Cp = T/6σ) . The larger the process capability index, the more likely that the parts will satisfy the production requirement.If machines produce parts with the standard variation found in a normal distribution, most of the parts will fall between 177。3 standard deviations of the average value . If the allowable specification width for critical part dimensions is 177。6 standard deviations, even with normal process variation fewer than four defective parts are produced in every batch of 1 million. This process leads to nearzerodefect production.Management of automated workforce is changing as a result of two key internal factors: the relationship between the operator and the machine, and the highly integrated nature of automated production systems. External factors affecting workforce management are the expanding global marketplace and evolution of the workforce. The most significant event resulting from evolution of workforce is the move to selfdirected work teams. The move to these teams is a result of two factors: first, for the organization to remain petitive, global petition requires problem solving from everyone in the enterprise。 and second, the workforce has evolved to a state where employees are ready to take the responsibility to control the production processes assigned to them by management. After selfdirected work teams are implemented, management bees the “what” team to decide what and how much to make。 the selfdirected word teams deal with the “how” issues, where they focus on how to produce the product most efficiently.Manufacturing TechnologyVery simply, manufacturing is converting raw materials into usable products. A further refinement of this fundamental definition is that these products may be reproduced in quantity, at a quality which makes them petitive. There is a basic difference, therefore, between an artisan who designs and crafts a single chair, and a number of workers involved in building a quantity of identical chairs. This act of replication, skilled people, and a management team into a productive system.The processes involved in converting materials into products can be classified as forming, cutting, and assembling. Ultimately, these are the only acts one can impose upon a substance to change it into something which people can use. Furthermore, these changes imposed upon materials are designed to produce modifications in the mass or bulk of the material, so that a subsequent change in geometry or shape occurs. These modifications can be described as mass or bulk conserving (forming) ,mass or bulk reducing (cutting), and mass or bulk increasing (assembling) . Stated another way, the geometry or configuration of a material can be changed by moving material from one area to another, removing unnecessary material, or joining materials together.Forming is a mass or bulk of conserving process, where shape change is achieved by deformation. The bulk of the end product is equal, or almost equal, to the initial bulk of the workpiece or raw substance.The fundamental forming processes include bending, drawing, rolling, forging, extruding, and casting. In all but casting, the geometry change is effected by deformation. Metal can be squeezed, stretched, or twisted to produce various shapes. The casting of metals or ceramics involves the introduction of a fixed amount of material into a mold cavity. 中文翻譯 非傳統(tǒng)制造工藝的工具制造業(yè)所用工具的使用方式在過去50年里發(fā)生了重大變化，這個(gè)被計(jì)算機(jī)控制的靈活的制造系統(tǒng)和機(jī)器人這些技術(shù)革新所證明。這些革新變得非常重要，因?yàn)閯趧?dòng)力價(jià)值在上升，交貨時(shí)間減少了，并且對(duì)產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量的要求提高了。不僅僅是制造所使用的工具的方法發(fā)生了變化，而且也因?yàn)榭焖侔l(fā)展的新的機(jī)器、難以加工的材料和日益復(fù)雜的組。因此，改用更加復(fù)雜的工具也變得很必要。對(duì)更加復(fù)雜的這種需求導(dǎo)致了制造工藝中一個(gè)全新的、獨(dú)特的成員的產(chǎn)生，這個(gè)被稱作非傳統(tǒng)制造工藝。一般來說，非傳統(tǒng)工藝與傳統(tǒng)工藝（例如鉆削、車削、和沖壓）不同，非傳統(tǒng)工藝或者用新穎的方法利用能源，或者為了制造業(yè)應(yīng)用迄今為止未被利用的各種形式的能源。高速材料噴氣機(jī)，脈沖磁場(chǎng)，光束和電化學(xué)反應(yīng)等這些新工具被用于執(zhí)行操作，例如：切割，焊接，去毛刺和成型。非傳統(tǒng)工藝現(xiàn)在用于許多不同的行業(yè)。然而，很多生產(chǎn)商仍然沒有意識(shí)到這些工藝和運(yùn)用這些工藝所能實(shí)現(xiàn)的利益。另外，那些認(rèn)為自己已經(jīng)熟悉非傳統(tǒng)工藝的人通常沒有認(rèn)識(shí)到所有過程中提供給他們的選擇或者對(duì)最新的進(jìn)步即急劇增長(zhǎng)的成本效益和這些工藝的能力缺乏信息。最近幾年，眾多的論文、技術(shù)文件和報(bào)道已經(jīng)提出各種飛傳統(tǒng)制造工藝方法?？墒?，要那些對(duì)知道所有可利用的信息資源同時(shí)也對(duì)找到時(shí)間跟上所有發(fā)展感興趣的人關(guān)注這個(gè)非常寬泛和變化迅速的目標(biāo)幾乎是不可能的。如果你認(rèn)為一個(gè)非傳統(tǒng)工藝過程應(yīng)該用你的設(shè)施進(jìn)行可能的更進(jìn)一步的調(diào)查研究，使遇到問題的機(jī)會(huì)最小化，并且通過這些常識(shí)性的指導(dǎo)方針來確保你的成功。在確定一個(gè)特殊的工藝對(duì)你的應(yīng)用時(shí)正確的之前，用盡可能多的替代過程進(jìn)行研究和實(shí)驗(yàn)。如果考慮在設(shè)備上處理你自己的硬件且有可利用的合適選擇，則選擇和研究若干可利用的工藝。為了確定潛在供應(yīng)者的體驗(yàn)與你預(yù)期設(shè)備的水平，要求具備一份購買類似機(jī)器的消費(fèi)者的清單。這份清單將反應(yīng)重復(fù)的訂貨單這個(gè)訂貨單是消費(fèi)者滿意度的一個(gè)很好的反應(yīng)。如果這設(shè)備提示你是被一個(gè)特殊生產(chǎn)商最先建造的之一，那就要特別的小心謹(jǐn)慎了。你應(yīng)該要以你的產(chǎn)品配額為代價(jià)，在最后調(diào)試這個(gè)設(shè)備。聯(lián)系一些這個(gè)生產(chǎn)商的消費(fèi)者，并直接確認(rèn)操作者的水平和要求他們提供合適的設(shè)備保養(yǎng)技巧，同時(shí)，詢問關(guān)于引起停機(jī)時(shí)間的最高頻率。詢問設(shè)備的長(zhǎng)期重復(fù)性。定期的調(diào)諧獲更換部件是否要求保持重復(fù)性以及你的使用場(chǎng)所是否比該設(shè)備設(shè)計(jì)的要求更高。如果你的設(shè)備是多部門合作的一部分，檢查其他部門的制造人員來確定他們是否有他們所說的對(duì)工藝過程或生產(chǎn)廠家的經(jīng)驗(yàn)。如果他們確實(shí)有經(jīng)驗(yàn)并且愿意與你分享他們所知道的信息，那么你的公司和母公司將會(huì)因避免了加倍的付出而節(jié)省了時(shí)間和資金。當(dāng)你準(zhǔn)備購買你的設(shè)備室時(shí)，生產(chǎn)廠家是否給你提供了一些推薦的備用零件。當(dāng)設(shè)備出現(xiàn)故障時(shí)，使你手邊有備用零件可以用，從而將減少停機(jī)時(shí)間。同時(shí)也要充分利用生產(chǎn)廠家提供的任何操作人員、保養(yǎng)人員和和程序員培訓(xùn)課程。培訓(xùn)不夠會(huì)影響你生產(chǎn)本該成功和使用儀器的機(jī)會(huì)。制造業(yè)中的質(zhì)量20世紀(jì)七十年代中期很多歐美生產(chǎn)廠家經(jīng)歷了市場(chǎng)份額的丟失。即使那些能保持他們市場(chǎng)份額的生產(chǎn)廠家也感受到了國外競(jìng)爭(zhēng)者的壓力。與此同時(shí)隨著復(fù)雜的和可靠的硬件，例如機(jī)器人、數(shù)控機(jī)床、可編程控制器（PLC）、物料搬運(yùn)系統(tǒng)和三坐標(biāo)測(cè)量機(jī)的引進(jìn)，制造業(yè)技術(shù)開始走向成熟。電腦變得更小更便宜。另外，制造和生產(chǎn)控制的通用軟件解決方案的數(shù)量急劇增長(zhǎng)。20世紀(jì)七十年代的生產(chǎn)廠家意識(shí)到單純的技術(shù)不足以提高企業(yè)的經(jīng)營(yíng)業(yè)績(jī)，對(duì)產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量的重視和對(duì)員工的發(fā)展是很有必要的。轉(zhuǎn)向產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量有兩個(gè)因素：一個(gè)全新的關(guān)于企業(yè)怎樣運(yùn)作的理論和獲得要求結(jié)果的質(zhì)量的工具的使用。這個(gè)更寬泛的質(zhì)量觀點(diǎn)被包括在一個(gè)稱為全面質(zhì)量管理（TQM）的過程中。TQM有兩個(gè)部分：原則和工具。這個(gè)原則允許一個(gè)組織戰(zhàn)勝組織管理部門利用每一個(gè)有潛力的，有技巧的和有知識(shí)的員工的傳統(tǒng)障礙。這些工具允許數(shù)量上和性質(zhì)上的系統(tǒng)尺寸來確定點(diǎn)這個(gè)工藝怎樣滿足組