【正文】 Finally, there is lack of means. many institutional reforms have lagged,affecting the capacity of the expanded EU39。s force.98年EU低出口增長的原因Becasue of the instability of Asian economy which are important to ,EU look forward to a good future of Asian economy at the end of 20th century.歐洲單一貨幣的發(fā)展進程ERM(Exchange Rate Mechanism)—core of EMS:mutually pegged exchange rates。ECU(European Currency Unit)。Central exchange rate。European Monetary Cooperation Fund EMS to EMUDelors Report:threestage process for establishment of EMU:All EU members were to join the EMS exchange rate mechanism (ERM)。Exchange rate margins were to be narrowed and certain macroeconomic policy decisions placed under more centralized EU control。Replacement of national currencies by a single European currency and vesting all monetary policy decisions in a ESCB。Reasons:EU countries moved away from the EMS and toward the single shared currency for four reasons:Greater degree of European market integration。Same opportunity as Germany to participate in systemwide monetary decisions。Complete freedom of capital movements。Political stability of Europe。Convergence criteria(to join EMU):Price stability:Maximum inflation rate % above the average of the three EU member states with lowest inflation。Exchange rate stability:Stable exchange rate within the ERM without devaluing on its own initiative。Budget discipline:Maximum publicsector deficit 3% of the country’s GDP。Maximum public debt 60% of the country’s GDP.(European System of Central Banks)ECB + EU National Central Banks:It consists of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt plus 12 national central banks.It conducts monetary policy for the euro zone.It is dependent on politicians in two respects:The ESCB’s members are political appointments。The Maastricht Treaty leaves exchange rate policy for the euro zone ultimately in the hands of the political authorities. Stability and Growth PactThe mediumterm budgetary objective of positions close to balance or in surplus。A timetable for the imposition of financial penalties on counties that fail to correct situations of excessive deficits and debt promptly enough. choice of the single currency加入EMU的幾個趨同標準Convergence criteria(to join EMU):Price stability:Maximum inflation rate % above the average of the three EU member states with lowest inflation。Exchange rate stability:Stable exchange rate within the ERM without devaluing on its own initiative。Budget discipline:Maximum publicsector deficit 3% of the country’s GDP。Maximum public debt 60% of the country’s GDP.歐元區(qū)有哪些國家？11 countries:France,Germany,Spain,Portugal,Italy,Austria,Finland,Greece,Ireland,Belgium,Netherlands.采取歐元的原因1 To enhance Europe’s role in the world monetary system。2 To turn the European Union into a truly unified market。3 The single currency will facilitate trade between the participating economies.4 The euro will also have a significant impact on the macroeconomic framework of the participating economies and,indeed,on those outside the eurozone。5 The euro will also have a significant impact on the global economy。6 The euro will thus be one of the major global reserve currencies,alongside the US dollar and the Japanese yen.APEC的原則和工作框架Principles:ComprehensivenessWTO ConsistencyComparabilityNondiscriminationTransparencyStandstillSimultaneous start, continuous process, and differentiated timetablesFlexibilityCooperation APEC39。s Scope of work:Trade and investment liberalizationBusiness facilitationEconomic and technical cooperation (Ecotech)NAFTA的最初原則，影響和危害Rules of origin:incredibly plex with over 200 pages with thousands of different rules for different products, many are protectionist。to guard against a firm’s ruse of doing minimal processing within the area and then claiming that the product is locally produced.The effects of NAFTA:the gains from trade creation and other effects are larger than the losses from trade diversion。all three countries will be slight net gains(Mexico Canada the .)。NAFTA will raise national ines and even the demand for labor.Harm:the main sectors where . ines and jobs are lost to Mexican petition are lessskilled industries like apparel (clothing), field crops (tomatoes), furniture, and autos。NAFTA causes some trade diversion, esp. from Asia. Asian makers of cars, clothing, furniture, financial services, and hightech equipment suffer losses。the losses made by the producers from the rest of the world because of NAFTA rules of origin. TOPIC Trade and EnvironmentReferences:PPTtradeamp。TextbookCh12 Trade and the Environment自由貿(mào)易反環(huán)境？No.Free trade permits production to be shifted to countries that have lax environmental effects are small:costs to firms of meeting environmental protection regulations are usually small。fears of unexpected liabilities in cases of accidents, general risks to corporate reputations from appearing to cause excessive harm to the environment, and the costs of meeting more stringent regulations in the future.Free trade is not inherently antienvironment.Relocation of production to avoid stringent environmental standards is small.Shifts towards freer trade cause a variety of changes, but the net effects on overall pollution usually seem to be small.自由貿(mào)易對環(huán)境影響的效應(yīng)1 position effect:pollutionintensive production tends to expand in the highine industrialized countries and pollutionintensive production tends to decline inn the lowine developing countries.2 bined sizeine effects:tend to lower pollution in the industrialized countries for sulfur dioxide,suspended particulates,and carbon monoxide。tend to increase nitrogen dioxide pollution in the European Union and Japan。tend to increase pollution in the developing countries.環(huán)境對人均收入的影響