【正文】 th little or no links to industry. In such a protected environment, there was no need to benchmark their activities to those of global players. Also their activities were only marginally focused on mercialization. The last decade has seen many of these laboratories bee more mercially oriented. They have been directing their efforts towards international quality Ramp。然而技術(shù)發(fā)展的步伐和方向的先前的形狀，決定了自然的需求。除了在印度設(shè)立新的中心，來充分利用印度的自由的氣 氛以外，現(xiàn)有的中心存在的理由和開辦的模式也被新的市場環(huán)境所改變。許多的研究機構(gòu)在 1990 的 339 年到 2020 年的 776，在工程方面提供超了出兩倍的正常學(xué)位層次的教育，學(xué)生在科學(xué)或者工程學(xué)位方面，也產(chǎn)生的了 80%的增幅，吸收能力相當于以前的兩倍。政府一直都積極的去關(guān)注投資的副產(chǎn)品，同樣也鼓勵在研發(fā)中心和整個行業(yè)之間的技術(shù)轉(zhuǎn)移。盡管如此，對印度公司增加競爭壓力使得其現(xiàn)代化，并且升級了他們的技術(shù)。 和其他的國家一樣，在獨立后的早些年，印度也探索著的去實現(xiàn)工業(yè)化和提高人民的生活水平，培育一個產(chǎn)業(yè)和科學(xué)技術(shù)的政策。這些沖突發(fā)生在發(fā)展和發(fā)達國家之間（由于不同的發(fā)展需要和目標所導(dǎo)致）甚至發(fā)展中國家集團之間。不斷增長軟件行業(yè)對經(jīng)濟的增長有著廣泛的影響。到目前為止，多國企業(yè)已強調(diào)了一種針對印度市場和獲得成本高效的生產(chǎn)設(shè)施的自定義 產(chǎn)品的戰(zhàn)略。 二、印度科學(xué)技術(shù)政策的趨勢 印度的科學(xué)和技術(shù)政策趨勢 人們早已認識到對科學(xué)和技術(shù)方面 的投資，在一個經(jīng)濟體的全部的生產(chǎn)要素有較高的增長率的條件下，對經(jīng)濟的增長會產(chǎn)生巨大的貢獻。D centers in technology intensive industries, mostly to take advantage of the strong pool of highlytrained engineers and scientists. Before 1991, there were only two such centers in the country. Apart from the setting up of new centers in India to take advantage of the liberalized atmosphere, the raison d’234。D policies in the early phases of their development. Science and Technology policy constitutes an integral part of a nation’s overall industrial policy (Barber and White, 1987). While the former shapes the pace and direction of technology development, the latter determines the nature of demand. This section reviews the evolution of Science and Technology policy in India since independence。D. Two recent major policy thrusts have been (a) an increase in the quest for patenting in Europe and the USA, as a means of engendering a strong desire to undertake Ramp。本節(jié)介紹 了 自獨立以來印度 的 科學(xué)和技術(shù)政策的演變。一些公司完全重組其在印度的研發(fā)中心，他們的注意力從為印度市場發(fā)展產(chǎn)品轉(zhuǎn)移到讓他們的研發(fā)中心變得全球卓越化。 雖然風(fēng)險 投資機構(gòu)開始在 1986 年出現(xiàn)在印度于，但是基于技術(shù)的風(fēng)險者并沒有趕上來。在許多年以后，印度也可以稱之為真正的精通科學(xué)技術(shù)。同時，許 多的跨國公司通過 FDI 和技術(shù)投資進入印度市場。發(fā)展中國家的經(jīng)濟增長，近似的需要依靠更加有效的利用資源，以及穩(wěn)固 的創(chuàng)新。盡管有一個自由貿(mào)易可以鞏固全球福利的一致的國際貿(mào)易規(guī)定，但是民族主義和不同目標，以及在國際貿(mào)易系統(tǒng)中的由于貿(mào)易所導(dǎo)致的利益分配，導(dǎo)致了許多的分歧和沖突。 外國直接投資技術(shù)溢出和技術(shù)容量 自由化政策，以及外國和印度公司的反應(yīng)有著許多技術(shù)溢出效應(yīng)，這些技術(shù)溢出效應(yīng)，對印度的技術(shù)接受能力有著相當大的價值。 三、對改革的反應(yīng)或影響 全球研發(fā)中心 Hirwani 和 Janin (1999 年 ) 顯示雖然在 1990 年代的大部分以市場為導(dǎo)向的活動，更重要的是多國企業(yè)，技術(shù)導(dǎo)向型活動也變得日益重要。該文章最后總結(jié)了歐盟地區(qū)國家科技發(fā)展的經(jīng)驗和教訓(xùn)。D centers by MNEs was consciously lacking. Since India signed the GATT Agreement in 1993 and subsequently passed the Intellectual Property law in 1994, over 60 MNEs have set up Ramp。 Science and Technology policy of any nation is carved within the background of overall industrial policy. If anything, Samp。D and to innovate and (b) an increase in the mercial orientation of industrial research, with a view to making these bodies less dependent on public budgetary support. FDI Spillover’s and Technological Capability Liberalization policies and the response by both foreign and Indian panies alike have had many spillovers that are valuable for India’s technological capability. The growth of the software industry has had wideranging impact on the economy. The demand for software imports and the setting up of foreign development centers have contributed to the rapid increase in pensation levels, estimated at an annual rate of 25% in the second half of the 1990s. Other benefits have included stock options and good employment opportunities, thereby slowing brain drain to some extent. Foreign participation has exposed Indian engineers and scientists to new technologies and made them more sensitive to the protection of intellectual property (software IP piracy was estimated to have risen from 59% to 61% between 1999 and 2020 ( Krishn