【正文】 r ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high pressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its pressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to pensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element. It is this deviation in the position of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two ponents of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and pacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product bees strong, durable, and, in bination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system. The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be pacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are pacted by means of high frequency powerdriven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete. 8 Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50176。 此外，概率理論意味著可以基于下面幾個(gè)因素來確定允許的危險(xiǎn)率，例如： 建筑物的重要性和建筑物破壞造成的危害性； （ 2） 由于建筑物破壞使生活受到威脅的人數(shù)； （ 3） 修復(fù)建筑的可能性； （ 4） 建筑物的預(yù)期壽命。由理論分析確定的這一最大強(qiáng)度應(yīng)不小于結(jié)構(gòu)承受計(jì)算荷載所算得的強(qiáng)度（極限狀態(tài)）。通常有兩種類型的極限狀態(tài)，即： （ 1） 強(qiáng)度 極限狀態(tài)，它相當(dāng)于結(jié)構(gòu)能夠達(dá)到的最大承載能力。的自裝式翻斗車，和容量約為 m179。 斗式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)通常是功率非常大的機(jī)械，許多廠家制造的鏟運(yùn)機(jī)鏟斗容量為 8 m179。 正鏟挖土機(jī)介于推土機(jī)和拉鏟挖土機(jī)的之間，其作用半徑大于推土機(jī)，但小于拉鏟挖土機(jī)。 費(fèi)用最低的運(yùn)土方法是用同一臺機(jī)械直接挖方取土并且卸土作為填方。當(dāng)時(shí)主要的開挖方式是使用正鏟、反鏟、拉鏟或抓斗等挖土機(jī)，盡管這些機(jī)械目前仍然在廣泛應(yīng)用，但是它們只不過是目前所采用的許多方法中的一小部分。 對結(jié)構(gòu)體系的各個(gè)部位均需選定試算截面并進(jìn)行驗(yàn)算，以確定該截面的名義強(qiáng)度是否足以承受所作用的計(jì)算荷載。必須記住，過分的振搗將導(dǎo)致骨料離析和混凝土泌漿等現(xiàn)象，因而是有害的。將鋼筋混凝土這種非均質(zhì)截面的兩種組成部分按一定比例適當(dāng)布置，可以最好的利用這兩種 材料。將可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板內(nèi)，并將其搗實(shí)，然后進(jìn)行養(yǎng)護(hù)，以加速水泥與水的水化反應(yīng)，最后獲得硬化的混凝土。如果拌制混凝土的各種材料配合比恰當(dāng)，則混凝土制成品的強(qiáng)度較高，經(jīng)久耐用，配置鋼筋后，可以作為任何結(jié)構(gòu)體系的主要構(gòu)件。為了保證水泥的水化作用得以進(jìn)行，必須具備上述條件。因此，當(dāng)試算截面選定后，每次設(shè)計(jì)都是對截面進(jìn)行復(fù)核。 土方工程或土方挖運(yùn)工程指的是把地表面過高處的土壤挖去（挖方）， 并把它傾卸到地表面過低的其他地方（填方）。推土機(jī)和正鏟挖土機(jī)都能做到這點(diǎn)。正鏟挖土機(jī)不能挖比其停機(jī)平面低很多的土，而深挖堅(jiān)實(shí)的土壤時(shí)，反鏟挖土機(jī)最適用，但其卸料半徑比起裝有正鏟的同一挖土 機(jī)的卸料半徑則要小很多。），由 430 馬力的牽引發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)驅(qū)動(dòng)。翻 斗車車斗向前傾翻而司機(jī)坐在后方卸載，因此有時(shí)被稱為后卸卡車。器例子包括結(jié)構(gòu)失穩(wěn)之前的過大變形和位移；早期開裂或過大的裂縫；較大的振動(dòng)和腐蝕。根據(jù)前兩種方法和后兩種 方法的四種可能組合，我們可以得到一些實(shí)用的計(jì)算方法。但是，應(yīng)該考慮到進(jìn)行全概率分析的困難。 heaped. The largest selfpropelled scrapers are of 19 m 179。 failure by fatigue。 (4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the putational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from puted stresses ). Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as : (1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failu