【正文】 s a really good shot. Clusters naturally appear by chance, but don39。s often much easier for people to believe someone39。, and this can bias our thinking。s not very good.Example:s origins. It39。Daniel was a precocious child and had a liking for logic. He reasoned that atoms are invisible, and that he was made of atoms and therefore invisible too. Unfortunately, despite his thinky skills, he lost the game of hide and go seek.第十七條：沒有真正的蘇格蘭人17. no true scotsmanYou made what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of your argument.In this form of faulty reasoning one39。s important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding and/or access to empirical evidence. However it is, entirely possible that the opinion of a person or institution of authority is wrong。runs39。t been proven beyond all doubt is also fallacious reasoning.Example:s mind through better understanding, many will invent ways to cling to old beliefs. One of the most mon ways that people do this is to postrationalize a reason why what they thought to be true must remain to be true. It39。After Sally presents an eloquent and pelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn39。t want to eat his sheep39。After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending.第二條：錯誤歸因2. false causeYou presumed that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other.Many people confuse correlation (things happening together or in sequence) for causation (that one thing actually causes the other to happen). Sometimes correlation is coincidental, or it may be attributable to a mon cause.Example:t a primate).15 竊取論點. begging the questionYou presented a circular argument in which the conclusion was included in the premise.This logically incoherent argument often arises in situations where people have an assumption that is very ingrained, and therefore taken in their minds as a given. Circular reasoning is bad mostly because it39。t be answered without appearing guilty.Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory nature the recipient of the loaded question is pelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.Example:Luke didn39。ll be charging $40,000 a semester!2. The US shouldn39?！　↑c評：人人都說，或者大多數(shù)都說，這并不意味著該觀點正確?！　↑c評：因為電視已經(jīng)被發(fā)明了，對于過去的否定假設(shè)后所得出的結(jié)論都是邏輯上的錯誤結(jié)論。　　 (False Analogy)　　例如：If God can do everything, can he make a stone so heavy that he can39?！　↑c評：兩個個例不足以推出一個真理?！　?(Dicto Simpliciter)(一)了解基本邏輯，避免常見錯誤　　 (Hasty Generalization)　　點評：甲事情發(fā)生在乙事情之前，這并不代表著先發(fā)生的甲事情就是后發(fā)生的乙事情的原因?！　±纾篢hink of all the poor, starving African children! How could rich countries be so cruel as not to help them?　　點評：從環(huán)境問題到世界滅亡，中間有無數(shù)環(huán)節(jié)未提供論證。s position. Everyone, bar sociopaths, is affected by emotion, and so appeals to emotion are a very mon and effective argument tactic, but they39。s case without actually having to engage with it.Example:isn39。s argument to make it easier to attack.By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just pletely fabricating someone39。re ultimately flawed, dishonest, and tend to make one39。ll be allowing people to marry their parents, their cars and even monkeys.第六條：人身攻擊 6. ad hominem ,personal attackYou attacked your opponent39。s probably not true.Complex subjects like biological evolution through natural selection require some amount of understanding before one is able to make an informed judgement about the subject at hand。 were tested under proper scientific conditions, they magically disappeared. Edward explained this saying that one had to have faith in his abilities for them to work.第十條：誘導(dǎo)性問題 plex questions 10. loaded question You asked a question that had a presumption built into it so that it couldn39。Fine for parking here39。Red had e up six times in a row on the roulette wheel, so Greg knew that it was close to certain that black would be next up. Suffering an economic form of natural selection with this thinking, he soon lost all of his savings.第十四條：樂隊花車14. bandwagonY