【正文】 rally independent. It’s also called a maximum free form.Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be bined with other words to form grammatical S.Syntactic rules prise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic petence.Syntactic rules are capable of yielding an endless of number of sentences in a natural language.Types of sentences :simple sentence+plex sentence+Coordinate/pound sentenceA simple sentence consists of a single clause that contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. . 2. John reads extensively. A clause that (a) takes a subject and a finite verb,and (b) at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause(限定分句).Normally, a finite clause is called a sentence while a clause that is bined with other clauses is called a clause(從句/小句).Note: The central element in a sentence/clause is the finite verb.A coordinate sentence (并列句) contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, like “and, but, or”. 3. John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.The two clauses are structurally equal parts of the sentence。 listen attentively。 and of the verb, ., tense, aspect, ice, etc.Number (數(shù)) is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.Gender(性) displays such contrasts as masculine, feminine, neuter or animate and inanimate, etc. for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the realworld entities，we natural gender (the opposite is grammatical gender).Case(格) identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms accusative, nominative, dative, English, the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to.Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic categoryusually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject.syntactic categories may lead to three resultsConstitutes that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.a. The student liked the linguistics lecture.b. The linguistics lecture liked The student.c. Liked the student the linguistics lecture. Grammatical relations(語(yǔ)法關(guān)系) The structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations refer virtually to “who” does “what” do whom”. We usually refer to the grammatical relations as “subject of” and “direct object of”.The subject precedes the verb and the direct object follows the verb, with the former called the structural subject and the latter the structural object. The structural subject is not necessarily the logical subject (the doer of an action) and the structural object is not necessarily the logical object (the recipient of the action).The man killed the dog.The dog was killed by the man.I left the wallet in the park.It was in the park that I left the wallet. Xbar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for plement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, . NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world. The XP rule: XP (specifier) X (plement) give him some books。What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics? * 60. * different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme. A. phones B. sounds C. phonemes D. allophonesExercises * IV. Define the terms below:* 45. phonology 46. phoneme 48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics 52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pair Exercises * V. Answer the following questions as prehensively as possible. Give ex173。A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. voiceless B. voiced C. vowel D. consonantal * 37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop. A. /z/ B. /d/ C. /k/ D./b/ * assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C. exactly alike D. similar Exercise * is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are bined into meaningful units to effect linguistic munication. Exercises * 26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or plete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________. * features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc. * phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituti