【正文】 要縮短數(shù)據(jù)的加工時(shí)間。過(guò)了這個(gè)時(shí)期，信息就不會(huì)產(chǎn)生效益，即信息的有效性。信息的生命周期即指信息從產(chǎn)生、收集、加工、傳輸、使用到失效的全過(guò)程。這種共享是一種非零和的共享，即共享的諸方受益、受損是不確定的，各方因同一信息而獲得的增值并不等于少數(shù)方獨(dú)占該信息所獲得的增值。 – 要注重信息的保密性，減少信息的擴(kuò)散的負(fù)效應(yīng)。 30 （ 9） 信息的粒度（ granularity ） – 粒度用來(lái)度量信息的詳細(xì)程度。 柳州 產(chǎn) 品 ? 系列 ? 產(chǎn)品組 ? 規(guī)格 F5M42 地 區(qū) ? 國(guó)外 ? 國(guó)內(nèi) ? 大區(qū) ? 省份 ? 城市 時(shí) 間 ? 年 季 月 周 日 4G63 MPI 4G64 R5M21 4G63 CARB 上海 廣州 一季 二季 三季 四季 銷售量 沈陽(yáng) 長(zhǎng)春 福州 Information Systems and Information Technology: Core Concepts ? An information system (IS) collects, processes, stores, analyzes, and distributes information for a specific purpose or objective. – Input. Data and information about business transactions are captured or collected by pointofsale (POS) scanners and Web sites and received by other input devices. – Processing. Data is transformed, converted, and analyzed for storage or transfer to an output device. – Output. Data, information, reports, and so on are distributed to digital screens or hardcopy (paper), sent as audio, or transferred to other ISs via munication works. – Feedback. A feedback mechanism monitors and controls operations. 31 32 ? Management Information Systems (MIS) – the development and use of information systems that help businesses achieve their goals and objectives. This definition has three key elements: development and use, information systems, and business goals and objectives. 33 ? Information System (IS) is an assembly of hardware, software, data, procedures, and people that produces information. ? Five Components of an Information System 34 Figure 14 35 ? These five ponents are symmetrical. The outermost ponents, hardware and people, are both actors。 agility。 petitors with better IT infrastructure ? Opportunities: a developing market。 obsolescence 64 ? SWOT is only a guide and should be used together with other tools such as Porter’s fiveforces analysis model. ? SWOT analysis is often done at the outset of the strategic planning process ? Strategic planning is a series of processes in which an anization selects and arranges its businesses or services to keep the anization viable even when unexpected events disrupt one or more of its businesses, markets, products, or services. Strategic planning involves environmental scanning and prediction, or SWOT analysis, for each business relative to petitors in that business’s market or product line. 65 ? Strategy defines the plan for how a business will achieve its mission, goals, and objectives. It specifies the necessary financial requirements, budgets, and resources . Strategy addresses fundamental issues such as the pany’s position in its industry, its available resources and options, and future directions. A strategy addresses questions such as: – What is the longterm direction of our business? – What is the overall plan for deploying our resources? – What tradeoffs are necessary? What resources will it need to share? – What is our position vis224。 for example, Apple, Microsoft, and auto manufacturers. Power is determined by how much a pany purchases from a supplier . The more powerful pany has the leverage to demand better prices or terms, which increase its profit margin. Conversely, suppliers with very little bargaining power tend to have small profit margins. 72 3. Bargaining power of customers or buyers . ? This force is the reverse of the bargaining power of suppliers. Examples are Dell Computers , Walmart , and governments. This force is high where there a few large customers or buyers in a market. 4. Threat of substitute products or services . ? Where there is productforproduct substitution, such as for fax, there is downward pressure on prices. As the threat of substitutes increases, profit margin decreases because sellers need to keep prices petitively low. 73 5. Competitive rivalry among existing firms in the industry. ? Fierce petition involves expensive advertising and promotions, intense investments in research and development (RD), or other efforts that cut into profit margins . This force is most likely to be high when entry barriers are low, threat of substitute products is high, and suppliers and buyers in the market attempt to control. That’s why this force is placed in the center of the model. 74 ? The strength of each force is determined by the industry’s structure. Existing panies in an industry need to protect themselves against the forces . Alternatively , they can take advantage of the forces to improve their position or to challenge industry leaders. ? Companies can identify the forces that influence petitive advantage in their marketplace and then develop a strategy. Porter proposed three types of strategies—cost leadership, differentiation, and niche strategies. 75 ? In Table , Porter’s three classical strategies are listed first, followed by a list of nine other general strategies for dealing with petitive advantage. Each of these strategies can be enhanced by IT, as will be shown throughout the book. 76 ? PORTER’ S VALUE CHAIN MODEL 77 ? According to Porter’s value chain model, the activities conducted in any manufacturing anization can be divided into two parts: primary activities and support activities. ? Primary activities are those business activities through which a pany produces goods, thus creating value for which customers are willing to pay. Primary activities involve the purchase of materials, the processing of materials into products, and delivery of products to customers . Typically, there are five primary activities: 1. Inbound logistics (ining raw materials and other inputs) 2. Operations (manufacturing and testing) 3. Outbound logistics (packaging, storage, and distribution) 4. Marketing and sales (t