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【正文】 lic health and other social programs in lowine As here, such programs are often limited to particular regions and particular target groups, typically poor households. Unlike in wealthier countries, inebased means tests are almost never used. Instead, for example, the microfinance programs in rural Bangladesh focus on the “functionally landless” implemented as a rule barring lending to households owning over a half acre of cultivable land. The program rule can be the basis of a plausible econometric strategy if the eligibility requirement is strictly enforced and built around a feature that is exogenous to the , clean impacts can be gauged by paring the status of households clustered just below the arbitrary dividing line to households clustered just above. This approach is a form of regression discontinuity design (Campbell, 1969), and the insights provide the basis of Pitt and Khandker’ evaluations are subject to multiple selection biases: selfselection into the programs by the most able, nonrandom program placement, and endogenous determination of the intensity of participation (., the size of loans in microfinance). The typical problem stems from the near impossibility of finding good instrumental variables work (1998a and 1998b。 The first two rows of Table 1 give figures disaggregated by program). Counter to historical observations suggesting an absence of land markets in South Asia, there is also substantial evidence of land sales. The data show that nearly one eighth of borrowers purchased substantial amounts of land in the six years prior to the survey. The approach below instead exploits the treatment/control aspect of the data through parisons across villages. The groups in villages not served by programs were sampled with strict adherence to the half acre rule, however, and the asymmetry with groups in program villages creates problems here as well. A solution is to turn the sampling strategy on its head. While the sample was designed so that the control groups are parable to the “treated” groups, the rule violations require that the treatment groups be redefined in order to bring them into conformity with the controls. An additional concern is given by nonrandom program placement. Upward biases arise when programs choose regions that are already doing well, and downward biases arise when programs favor disadvantaged areas. The typical response to the problem is to estimate impacts
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