【正文】 cal , or gr aphological devi at ions? Such deviat ions are of ten t he cl ue to speci al i nter pr etati ons associ at ed wit h t radit ional f igur es of speech such as m etaphor , metonymy, synecdoche, paradox, and ir ony. I f such t ropes occur, what kind of special i nt erpr et at ion i s involved ( for example, metaphor can be classi fi ed as per sonif ying, ani mali zing, concreti zing, synaest het ic, et c)? Context and cohesion Her e we t ake a look at features whi ch are gener al y ful ly dealt wi th i n discourse anal ysi s. Under cohesion ways in which one part of a text is l inked to anot her are considered。 and wor ds ar e also symbols. (P. 218. Oxf or d Concise Di ct ionary of Li ter ar y Term s. ) A symbol i s a t hi ng that suggest s mor e than i ts l iter al meaning. It exists widely even i n our dai l y l if e. Our l anguage it sel f is symbol. The dai ly gr eet ings i ndi cat e that the pasage of m uni cat ion i s open. Ri ng is a symbol of et er nit y. The s ign of cr oss i ndi cat es at onement. The Bi g Ben symbolizes London, the Gr eat Wal China. Rit ual ist ic acts are symbol ic. In church wedding t he bri de is handed over fr om the f at her t o the gr oom. Holy eati ng is symboli c of munion, bapti zing cleansi ng a nd rebir th. The rai si ng and loweri ng of a national fl ag cer tainl y suggest m eani ngs l ar ger than the acts t hem selves. And fi nal ly t oast ing and shaking hands on for mal or infor mal occasi ons. As r het ori cal devi ce, symbol is dif fer ent f rom metaphor, which i s li ter al ly false but fi gur ati vel y tr ue. Unl ike al egor y, whi ch repr esents abst ract term s li ke “l(fā) ove” or “tr uth, ” symbol s ar e perceptibl e objects. I n l it er atur e al most anythi ng—part icular object s, character s, set ti ng, and acti ons—can be symboli c if t he aut hor wi shes t o make it so by eit her hi nti ng or i nsi st ing that he mater ial means m ore t han it li ter al ly does. Symbol s ar e suggest ed t hr ough special tr eat ment such as imagery, repeti ti on, connot at ive l anguage, or other ar ti stic devi ces. I n F. Scot t Fitzgeral d’ s novel The Gr eat Gatsby, a huge pair of bespectacled eyes st ar es acr oss a wi l dness of ash heaps f rom a bil lboard advert ising t he ser vices of an oculi st . Repeatedly appear ing in t he st ory, the bespectacled eyes e to m ean m or e t han si mply t he avai labil ity of eye examinati on. A char act er i n the st or y pares it t o t he eyes of God。 i t is, rather, a symbol the poet or t he wri ter adopt s for t he pur pose of his/ her wor k, and i t is to be under st ood onl y in the context of t hat wor k. I t dif fers fr om t he kind of sym bol i l ust rated by t he fi gur e 3 because i t i s c oncr et e and specif ic. A poet or a wri ter uses symbols f or the sam e reason he/ she uses simi les, metaphor s, and i mages, et c: they hel p t o expr es hi s/ her meaning i n a way t hat wi l appeal t o the senses and to t he emoti ons of t he reader . Most symbols, in lit eratur e and ever yday l if e as wel , possess a tr emendous condensing power. Their f ocusing on t he rel at ionshi ps bet ween the visi bl e ( audibl e) and what they suggest can ki ndl e it i nto a si ngl e im pact. Of course, in l it er ary wor ks, symbols, unl ike t hose i n ordi nar y l if e, usual ly do not “st and f or” any one meaning, nor f or anyt hing absol utely def init e。 on the other hand, t he white whal e is invest ed wit h dif fer ent meanings for dif f er ent cr ew members t hrough t he handli ng of materi als i n the novel. Simi lar ly, in Hem ingway’s A Far ewel l to Ar ms, r ai n, whi ch is general y r egarded as a symbol of l if e ( especi al ly in spri ng) , and which i s a mi ldly annoying m et eor ological phenomenon in t he openi ng chapter, i s convert ed int o a sym bol of deat h t hr ough the uses t o whi ch it is put i n the wor k. 3. Symbol s in f ict ion are i nani mate obj ect s Of ten symbols we meet i n fi cti on ar e i nanim at e objects. In Wil li am Faulker’s “A Rose for Em il y, ” Mi s Emil y’s i nvi si ble but per cept ible watch ti cking at the end of a golden chai n not onl y indicat es t he passage of t im e, but suggest s that ti me pases wit hout even bei ng noti ced by t he watch’s owner. The golden chai n t o which i t is at ached car ies suggesti ons of wealt h and aut hor it y. Ot her things may al so function symboli cal ly. In James Joyce’s “Araby, ” the ver y nam e of the bazar, Ar aby—the poeti c nam e for Ar abi a—suggests m agi c, r omance, and The Arabi an Night s。 in Ernest Hem ingway’s “A Cl ean, Wel l Lighted Pl ace” is not mer el y a caf233。 of tr ansit ive or i nt ransit ive verb constr uct ions) ? Ar e there any unusual order ings (i nit ial adverbi al s, f ront ing of object or plement, etc) ? Do speci al ki nds of clause constr uct ion occur (such as t hose wi th prepar ator y it or t here) ? Noun phrases: Ar e they r el atively si mple or pl ex? Wher e does the plexit y li e ( in pr em odi fi cat ion by adjecti ves, nouns, et c, or i n post modif icati on by preposi ti on by preposi ti onal phrases, rel at ive clauses, etc)? Ver b phrases: Ar e there any signif i cant depart ures f rom the us e of the simpl e past tense? For example, not ice occur r ences and f unct ions of the pr esent tense, of the progr essive aspect, of the per fect aspect , of m odal auxi li ar ies. ot her phr ase t ypes: Is t her e anyt hing t o be sai d about other phrases t ypes, such as preposi ti onal phrases, adver b phrases, adj ect ive phrases? Word cl asses: Having alr eady considered maj or wor d cl asses, we may consi der m inor word cl ases (eg f unct ional wor ds), such as pr eposit ions, conjunct ions, pr onouns, det er mi ner s, auxil iari es, int erj ecti ons. Ar e par t icular words of these types used f or par t