【正文】 the di scourse i s made, we consider the external rel at ions of the l it er ary t ext or a part of t he text, seing it as a discour se pr esupposi ng a soci al r elati on bet ween it s par ti cipant s ( aut hor and r eader, char act er and character, char act er and r eader , et c. ), and a shar ing of knowledge and asumpti ons by par ti ci pant s. Cohesi on: Does t he text contai n logical or ot her l inks between sent ences (eg coordi nat ing conjunctions, li nki ng adverbi al s), or does i t tend to reply on impl icit connecti ons of m eaning? What sort of use is made of cross ref er ence by pr onouns ( she, it , they, etc) , by substi ute f orm s (do, so, etc) , or el ipsis? I s there any use made of el egant var iat ion—t he avoi dance of repeti ti on by substi tuti on of a descri pti ve phr ase ( as “the old lawyer” subst it ut es for t he r epet it ion of an earl ier “Mr Jones”) ? Ar e meaning connecti ons r einf or ced by repeti ti on of wor ds and phr ases, or by r epeatedl y usi ng words f rom the same semant ic fi el d? Context: Does the wr it er addr ess t he r eader dir ect ly, or thr ough t he wor ds or t houghts of some f icti onal char act er? What l inguisti c clues (eg f ir st per son pr onouns I , m e, m y, mi ne) ar e there of t he addr eser addr esse relat ionshi p? What at ti tude does t he aut hor impl y towar ds hi s/her subject? I f a char act er’ s words or t houghts ar e represent ed, i s this done by di rect quotat ion, or by some ot her m et hod (eg i ndi rect speech, f ree i ndi rect speech) ? Ar e there si gni fi cant changes of st yl e wi th r espect to di f er ent persons (nar rator or char act er ) who i s supposedly speaking or thi nki ng the wor ds on the page? What is t he poi nt of vi ew of the stor y? Are t he fr equent shi ft s of poi nt vi ew? If so, in whose voice i s the nar ator speaking? Chapter Seven Symbol What i s sym bol ? Symbol, i n the sim plest sense, anyt hi ng that st ands f or or represent s som et hing else beyond it—usual ly an i dea convent ional y asoci ated wi th i t. Obj ect s li ke fl ags and crosses can f uncti on symbol ical y。t ypes of sentence are used, what is t hei r functi on? Sent ence plexit y: Do sent ences on whole have a simpl e or a pl ex str uct ur e? What is t he aver age sentence lengt h? Does pl exity var y str ikingl y fr om one sentence t o another? I s plexit y mainl y due to ( i) coordi nat ion, (i i) subor dinati on, ( i i) j uxt aposit ion of clauses or of other equi val ent str uct ures? In what part s of the text does pl exi ty t end to occur ? clause types: What t ypes of clauses are favored—r elati ve cl auses, adverbial clauses, or di f erent types of nomi nal clauses? Ar e non f init e for ms monl y used, and i f so, of what types ar e t hey ( inf ini tive, i ng f or m, ed for m, ver bles st ructur e) ? What i s their f uncti on? Clause st ructur e: I s t her e anyt hi ng signif icant about cl ause elements (eg f requency of objects, adverbial s, plements。 of tr ansit ive or i nt ransit ive verb constr uct ions) ? Ar e there any unusual order ings (i nit ial adverbi al s, f ront ing of object or plement, etc) ? Do speci al ki nds of clause constr uct ion occur (such as t hose wi th prepar ator y it or t here) ? Noun phr ases: Are they rel at ively si mple or plex? Wher e does t he plexity li e (i n prem odi fi cat ion by adjecti ves, nouns, et c, or i n post modif ication by pr eposi tion by pr eposi tional phr ases, relat ive clauses, et c)? Ver b phr ases: Are t here any signif icant depart ures fr om the use of t he simpl e past tense? For exam ple, not ice occur rences and f unct ions of the pr esent t ense, of t he progr essive aspect, of the perf ect aspect, of modal auxi liar ies. ot her phrase t ypes: I s t her e anyt hing t o be sai d about other phr ases t ypes, such as preposi ti onal phrases, adverb phr ases, adj ect ive phrases? Wor d classes: Havi ng alr eady consi der ed major wor d classes, we may consi der m inor word cl asses (eg f unct ional wor ds) , such as preposi ti ons, conj unct ions, pr onouns, deter miner s, auxi li ari es, int er jecti ons. Ar e par ti cul ar words of these types used f or par ticul ar ef e ct ( eg demonst rati ves such as this and t hat , negati ves such as not , not hing)? Gener al : Note whet her any gener al t ypes of gramm at ical constr uct ion ar e used t o special ef f ect ( eg par at ive or super lati ve constr uctions, coor di nat ive or l isti ng constr uct ions, par ent het ical constr uct ions, i nt erj ect ions and af ter thought s as occur in causal speech). And see to t he number of l ists and coordinati ons. Figur es of Speech Her e we consider the f eat ur es which are for egr ounded by vir tue of depar ti ng in some way fr om general nor ms of municati on by means of t he language code, f or exampl e, exploit ation of deviati ons fr om t he li ngui st ic code. Gr ammati cal and l exi cal schemes ( foregr ounded r epeti ti ons of expressi on) : Are there any cases of for mal and st ructur al r epet it ion ( anaphor a, par al lel ism, etc) or of m ir ror i mage pat terns ( chi asm us) ? Is t he rhetor ical ef fect of these one of anti thesi s, r ei nfor cement , cl imax, ant icli max, et c? Phonologi cal schemes: Ar e t her e any phonologi cal pater ns of r hyme, al li terat ion, assonance, etc? Ar e t her e any sali ent r hythmi cal pat er ns? Do vowels and consonant sounds pat er n or cluster in par ti cul ar ways? How do these phonological features i nteract wi t h m eani ng? Tropes (f oregrounded ir regular it es of content) : Ar e there any obvious viol at ions of or neologi sms fr om t he li ngui st ic code? For example, are t her e any neol ogi sm s (such as “por tentous inf ant s”) ? Are there any semant ic, synt act ic, phonological, or graphological