【正文】 he t ext, seeing it as a discourse presupposing a social r elat ion bet ween it s par t icipants ( aut hor and r eader , charact er and character, character and r eader, etc. ), and a shar ing of knowledge and assumptions by par ticipant s. Cohesion: Does t he t ext cont ain logical or ot her links bet ween sentences ( eg coordinat ing conjunct ions, linking adver bials) , or does it t end t o r eply on im plicit connections of meaning? What sort of use is m ade of cross r ef erence by pr onouns ( she, it , t hey, et c), by subst it ute f orm s ( do, so, et c), or ellipsis? I s t her e any use m ade of elegant variat ion—the avoidance of repetition by substitution of a descriptive phrase ( as “the old lawyer” substitutes for the repetition of an earlier “Mr Jones”) ? Are m eaning connections reinforced by repetition of words and phrases, or by r epeat edly using wor ds f r om t he sam e semant ic f ield? Cont ext : Does t he wr it er addr ess t he r eader dir ectly, or t hrough t he wor ds or t hought s of some f ictional char act er? What linguist ic clues ( eg f ir st per son pr onouns I , m e, m y, mine) ar e ther e of t he addresser addressee relationship? What atitude does the author im ply towards his/her subject? If a character’s words or thoughts are r epresented, is t his done by dir ect quotation, or by some ot her m ethod ( eg indir ect speech, f r ee indir ect speech) ? Ar e t here signif icant changes of st yle wit h r espect o dif f erent per sons ( nar at or or char act er ) who is supposedly speaking or t hinking t he wor ds on t he page? What is t he point of view of t he st ory? Ar e t he f r equent shif t s of point view? I f so, in whose voice is t he nar r ator speaking? Chapt er Seven Sym bol What is sym bol? Sym bol, in t he simplest sense, anything t hat stands f or or epr esents somet hing else beyond it —usualy an idea convent ionaly associat ed wit h it . Objects like f lags and cr oses can f unction symbolicaly。t ypes of sent ence ar e used, what is t heir f unction? Sentence plexit y: Do sentences on whole have a sim ple or a plex str uct ure? What is t he average sent ence lengt h? Does plexit y var y st r ikingly f rom one sent ence t o another ? I s plexit y m ainly due t o ( i) coordinat ion, ( i) subor dination, ( i) juxt aposit ion of clauses or of ot her equivalent str uct ures? In what par ts of the t ext does plexit y tend t o occur ? clause t ypes: What t ypes of clauses ar e f avored—r elat ive clauses, adverbial clauses, or dif f erent types of nom inal clauses? Ar e nonf init e f orm s monly used, and if so, of what t ypes ar e t hey ( infinit ive, ing f orm , ed f or m, ver bless t r uct ure)? What is t heir f unction? Clause st ructur e: I s t her e anyt hing signif icant about clause elem ent s (eg f requency of object s, adver bials, plem ents。 of t r ans it ive or int ransit ive ver b const r uct ions) ? Ar e t her e any unusual or derings ( init ial adver bials, f r ont ing of object or plement , et c)? Do special kinds of clause const ruction occur ( such as those wit h pr epar ator y it or t her e) ? Noun phr ases: Ar e t hey r elat ively sim ple or plex? Wher e does t he plexit y lie ( in pr em odifcat ion by adject ives, nouns, et c, or in post modif ication by pr eposit ion by pr eposit ional phr ases, r elat ive clauses, et c)? Verb phr ases: Ar e t here any signif icant depart ures f rom t he use of t he sim ple past ense? For exam ple, not ice occur r ences and f unctions of t he pr esent t ense, of t he pr ogr essive aspect , of t he perf ect aspect , of modal auxilar ies. ot her phr ase t ypes: I s t here anything t o be said about other phrases t ypes, such as pr eposit ional phr ases, adverb phr ases, adject ive phrases? Word classes: Having alr eady consider ed major wor d classes, we m ay consider m inor word classes ( eg f unct ional wor ds), such as pr eposit ions, conjunctions, pr onouns, deter miner s, auxilar ies, int er jections. Ar e par t icular wor ds of t hese t ypes used f or part icular ef f ect ( eg demonst ratives such as t his and t hat, negat ives such as not, nothing)? General: Not e whet her any gener al t ypes of gr ammat ical constr uct ion ar e used t o special ef f ect ( eg par ative or superlat ive const ruct ions, coordinat ive or list ing const ruct ions, parent het ical constr uct ions, int er ject ions and aft ert hought s as occur in causal speech). And see t o t he number of list s and coor dinat ions. Figur es of Speech Here we consider t he f eatur es which ar e f oregr ounded by vir tue of depart ing in som e way f rom gener al nor m s of m unicat ion by m eans of t he language code, f or example, exploit at ion of deviations f r om t he linguist ic code. Gr am matical and lexical schem es ( f oregrounded repet it ions of expression) : Are t her e any cases of f ormal and st r uct ural r epetit ion ( anaphora, par alelism , et c) or of m ir ror im age pat ter ns ( chiasmus) ? Is t he r het orical ef f ect of t hese one of ant it hesis, r einfor cem ent , clim ax, ant iclim ax, et c? Phonological schemes: Ar e t her e any phonological pat t er ns of r hyme, alit er at ion, asonance, et c? Ar e t her e any salient r hythmical pat t er ns? Do vowels and consonant s ounds pat ter n or clust er in par t icular ways? How do t hese phonological f eatur es int er act wit h m eaning? Tr opes ( f oregrounded ir r egular it ies of cont ent ): Ar e t her e any obvious violat ions of or neologism s fr om t he linguist ic code? For example, are t here any neologisms ( such as “portentous inf ants”) ? Are there any semantic, syntactic, phonological, or graphological deviations? Such deviat ions ar e of ten t he clue t o special int er pret ations associat ed wit h t r adit ional f igur es of speech such as m etaphor, met on