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obtained by reduced uncertainty about the future event. Information supports decisions, decisions trigger actions, and actions affect the achievements or performance of the organization. If we can measure the differences in performance, we can trace the impact of information, provided that the measurements are carefully performed, the relationships among variables are well defined, and possible effects of irrelevant factors are isolated. The measured difference in performance due to informational factors is called the realistic value or revealed value of information. For most information systems, particularly those supporting middle and top management, the resulting decisions often relate to events that are not strictly defined and involve probabilities that cannot be quantified. The decisionmaking process often is obscure and the outes are scaled by multiple and inparable dimensions. In such cases, we may either attempt to perform a multiattribute analysis or derive an overall subjective value. The subjective value reflects people39。 McLeod, 1995). Basic concepts Data versus Information Data refers to raw, unevaluated facts, figures, symbols, objects, events, etc. Data may be a collection of facts lying in storage, like a telephone directory or census records. Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful context and municated to a recipient who uses it to make decisions. Information involves the munication and reception of intelligence or knowledge. It appraises and notifies, surprises and stimulates, reduces uncertainty, reveals additional alternatives or helps eliminate irrelevant or poor ones, and influences individuals and stimulates them to action. An element of data may constitute information in a specific context。 Olson, 1985。s ponents together and provides for better operation and survival in a petitive environment. The term information system usually a puterbased system, one that is designed to support the operations, management, and decision functions of an organization. Information systems in organizations thus provide information support for decision makers. Information systems enpass transaction processing systems, management information systems, decision support systems, and strategic information systems. Information consists of data that have been processed and are meaningful to a user. A system is a set of ponents that operate together to achieve a mon purpose. Thus a management information system collects, transmits, processes, and stores data on an organization39。區(qū)塊可能只使輸入 輸出終端機(jī)被連接到細(xì)分計(jì)算機(jī)為區(qū)域提供數(shù)據(jù),有必要的時(shí)候作為在線查詢(xún)。在區(qū)域 /細(xì)分本地?cái)?shù)據(jù)可能被存儲(chǔ)和處理,而被共享的數(shù)據(jù)可能會(huì)以適當(dāng)程度的聚合被傳送 到政府總部更新整合的數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)。根據(jù)要處理的數(shù)據(jù)的容量,每個(gè)區(qū)域和細(xì)分有可能具有一臺(tái)迷你 /微計(jì)算機(jī)。為了整個(gè)的政府,一個(gè)整合的數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)可能在政府總部被一個(gè)主機(jī) /迷你計(jì)算機(jī)所支持。在區(qū)塊層次收 集的數(shù)據(jù)需要在高級(jí)的管理層次被整合,在區(qū)域和州的層次上提供一個(gè)整合的意見(jiàn)用以支持計(jì)劃、監(jiān)聽(tīng)和決策制定。政府的行政機(jī)構(gòu)被劃分為區(qū)域,區(qū)域進(jìn)入細(xì)分之內(nèi),進(jìn)入?yún)^(qū)塊之內(nèi)的細(xì)分。在印度,在全國(guó)性和狀態(tài)層次之間的權(quán)力分割之下,農(nóng)業(yè)是一個(gè)政府話(huà)題。 能夠靈活的被那些應(yīng)用程序或者樣板基層共享的大型企業(yè)的數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)的想法已經(jīng)被那些軟件包特別是執(zhí)行如此認(rèn)為的軟件包所了解。適當(dāng)?shù)慕Y(jié)構(gòu)意味著數(shù)據(jù)用一種像是使最小預(yù)期加工和存儲(chǔ)成本的方法進(jìn)行存儲(chǔ) (Awad amp。廣泛性意味著所有關(guān)于數(shù)據(jù)的題目都在數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)中實(shí)際出現(xiàn)過(guò)。Morton, 1978) 期間數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)可 能提及可以為一個(gè)機(jī)構(gòu)內(nèi)各部門(mén)服務(wù)的數(shù)據(jù)集合。這就暗示著同一個(gè)數(shù)據(jù)可以同時(shí)被多個(gè)不同集合的程序表所使用;因此,我們可以看出數(shù)據(jù)(數(shù)據(jù)的集合)和應(yīng)用(程序的集合)的區(qū)別。自動(dòng)化的使用讓存儲(chǔ)大量的信息變得有可能,而且還避免了找到他們手工記錄的路徑 時(shí)的錯(cuò)誤,還有那些在人工系統(tǒng)中實(shí)際上是不可能比較和計(jì)算的錯(cuò)誤。當(dāng)其他的要求數(shù)據(jù)被記錄在一個(gè)輸入媒介比如磁性材料(特別地涂上一層的塑料易曲的或軟式磁盤(pán)和磁帶)上時(shí)一些輸入設(shè)備允許直接的人機(jī)交互。 三、需要自動(dòng)化 一個(gè)自動(dòng)化的信息管理系統(tǒng)包含的數(shù)據(jù)僅僅像是由手工系統(tǒng)做出來(lái)的。管理信息是管理者必須的信息,就像他們做出決定,比如按類(lèi)別要擴(kuò)充的人員就業(yè)的數(shù)目,他們的培訓(xùn)要求,職業(yè)發(fā)展規(guī)劃,工作說(shuō)明,預(yù)算,預(yù)測(cè) ,基點(diǎn)審視,報(bào)道被服務(wù)的人們的社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)狀況,和目前的設(shè)備( Ramesh Babu amp。這樣的信息我們叫做管理信息。那些經(jīng)過(guò)處理,存儲(chǔ)和合理出現(xiàn)的數(shù)據(jù)會(huì)輔助他們分析問(wèn)題和做出高效的決定。在不同層次擴(kuò)充 的管理者需要相關(guān)的信息來(lái)做出高效的決策。 二、在農(nóng)業(yè)擴(kuò)充的管理計(jì)劃中 MIS 的角色 國(guó)家的擴(kuò)充系統(tǒng),尤其是在發(fā)展中國(guó)家,一般傾向于很龐大。當(dāng)其他部分需要零配件的時(shí)候,計(jì)算機(jī)就會(huì)自動(dòng)的下命令。另外一個(gè)決策執(zhí)行信息系統(tǒng)的例子是在調(diào)制解調(diào)器工廠的生產(chǎn)中被應(yīng)用。飛機(jī)加載的自動(dòng)飛行系統(tǒng)就是決策執(zhí) 行系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)案例。在信息系統(tǒng)中它是一個(gè)決策系統(tǒng)而且決策者只有一個(gè)而且是同一個(gè)。 決策執(zhí)行的信息系統(tǒng)。但是她們也包含、規(guī)定了 農(nóng)民的基本收入和改善農(nóng)民的生活質(zhì)量。一個(gè)組織的額外價(jià)值有很多而且形式多樣。 制定決策的信息系統(tǒng)。 預(yù)言性的信息系統(tǒng)為與做出決策相關(guān)的推論和先前預(yù)測(cè)的事物提供制圖。 預(yù)言性的信息系統(tǒng)。Sachdeva( 1990)綜合地呈現(xiàn)了這四種類(lèi)型: 數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)信息系統(tǒng)。梅森和斯旺森( 1981)把管理信息系統(tǒng)分為四個(gè)類(lèi)型:( 1)數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)信息系統(tǒng), ( 2) 預(yù)言性的信息系統(tǒng),( 3)制定決策的信息系統(tǒng),( 4)決策執(zhí)行的信息系統(tǒng)。信息在決斷程序的所有的四個(gè)階段中扮演著重要的角色。在選擇階段,決策者必須要選擇出一個(gè)對(duì)組織的目標(biāo)貢獻(xiàn)最大的方案。在智力階段被收集的數(shù)據(jù)現(xiàn)在被統(tǒng)計(jì),其他的模型為每一個(gè)選擇預(yù)測(cè)可能發(fā)生的結(jié)果 。這對(duì)于識(shí)別環(huán)境需求的決策是很重要的。 對(duì)于決策來(lái)說(shuō)信息是一個(gè)助手 西蒙( 1977)把決策的程序說(shuō)成是包含四個(gè)階段: 智力、設(shè)計(jì)、選擇和評(píng)論。主觀的價(jià)值反映了人們對(duì)于信息的綜合印象和他們?cè)敢鉃樘囟ㄐ畔⒅Ц兜膬r(jià)值( Ahituv, Neumann, amp。決策程序時(shí)常是模糊的