【正文】 。即：過(guò)去的過(guò)去用過(guò)去完成時(shí)，過(guò)去用一般過(guò)去時(shí)。如用in 2007時(shí)，就只能用過(guò)去時(shí)，而不能用完成時(shí)?，F(xiàn)在完成時(shí)用于表示動(dòng)作從開(kāi)始持續(xù)到現(xiàn)在，強(qiáng)調(diào)對(duì)現(xiàn)在仍然有影響。如：She WAS PLAYING with her friends when the babysitter ARRIBED. 改變的下面的句子也是正確的，不過(guò)意思不同。但當(dāng)句子中不止一個(gè)動(dòng)作時(shí)，可能需要改變句子時(shí)態(tài)。也不能對(duì)state verb（know之類的詞）用將來(lái)時(shí)。不能用進(jìn)行時(shí)描述general definitions，要用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)。進(jìn)行時(shí)是用來(lái)描述正在進(jìn)行的動(dòng)作的，包括to do和現(xiàn)在進(jìn)行時(shí)（ing形式）。一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)經(jīng)常用來(lái)指“永遠(yuǎn)不變的”或是經(jīng)常發(fā)生的事情。主動(dòng)是主語(yǔ)是動(dòng)作的執(zhí)行者，被動(dòng)時(shí)主語(yǔ)是句子的承受者其他人或事完成了主語(yǔ)的動(dòng)作。大部分情況用陳述語(yǔ)氣，但是描述假設(shè)等不真實(shí)的事件時(shí)用虛擬語(yǔ)氣。 （2）考慮語(yǔ)氣的時(shí)候，要思考作者對(duì)這個(gè)動(dòng)作相信什么，想做什么。 （1）考慮時(shí)態(tài)的時(shí)候，思考動(dòng)作發(fā)生的時(shí)間。Chapter 7 Verb tense , mood, amp。ing 形式做修飾語(yǔ)比which要靈活得多：（1）做形容詞，直接修飾名詞（2）可以修飾主語(yǔ)和動(dòng)詞（3）可以修飾一個(gè)從句（此時(shí)主句若轉(zhuǎn)化為同意名詞，這個(gè)名詞可作為ing的主語(yǔ)），這種形式就是常見(jiàn)的ing 表示結(jié)果的結(jié)構(gòu)。而動(dòng)詞修飾可以被放在任何位置，以便修飾正確的動(dòng)詞而沒(méi)有歧義。1有些動(dòng)詞修飾既修飾名詞又修飾動(dòng)詞的主語(yǔ)，這時(shí)候必須要保證主語(yǔ)和修飾詞有意義。Type/first word 位置Example副詞 動(dòng)詞前動(dòng)詞后FREQUENTLY, I walk to the store.I FREQUENTLY walk to the store.介詞動(dòng)詞前動(dòng)詞后ON Monday, I walk to the store.I walk to the store on Mondays.從句動(dòng)詞前動(dòng)詞后WHEN my car is broken, I walk to the store.I walk to the store when my car is broken.從屬結(jié)構(gòu)用because，although，if，unless，while，so that，while，so on修飾。1動(dòng)詞修飾是修飾動(dòng)詞的，信息包括“how”“where”“why”等。 是essential的信息。when 可以修飾一個(gè)名詞時(shí)間或時(shí)間，period、age、1987。That和whom在做賓語(yǔ)時(shí)可省略。如：the town whose water supply was contaminated.which和whom有時(shí)跟在介詞之后。which修飾物。關(guān)系代詞引導(dǎo)名詞修飾，關(guān)系代詞有：which、that、who、whose、whom、where、when。如： Wrong： Unskilled in plex math, Bill’s score on the exam was poor. 這個(gè)句子中，不應(yīng)該是Bill’s score unskilled。如：Wrong: George Carlin, both shocking and entertaining audiences across the nation, who also struggled publicly with drug abuse, influenced and inspired a generation of edians.Right: Both shocking and entertaining audiences across the nation, George Carlin influenced and inspired a generation of edians, even as he struggled publicly with drug abuse.注意所有格。t have a car changing its own oil.Confusion: Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, the car seemed to run better. Repair Work: Changing the oil every 3,000 miles, Fred found he could get much better gas mileage. *: An infinitive phrase can also dangle. The infinitive phrase below should probably modify the person(s) who set up the exercise program. Confusion: To keep the young recruits interested in getting in shape, an exercise program was set up for the summer months. Repair Work: To keep the young recruits interested in getting in shape, the coaching staff set up an exercise program for the summer months. 避免一系列的修飾語(yǔ)修飾同一個(gè)名詞。如:Wrong： Jim biked along an old dirt road to get to his house, which cut through the woods. Right： To get to his house, Jim biked along an old dirt road, which cut through the woods. 如果名詞修飾所修飾的詞不在句子里，即缺乏修飾對(duì)象，會(huì)造成Dangling Modifier。如用現(xiàn)在分詞造成dangling modifier。 iii. the + n., n.（前面的the + n 為同位結(jié)構(gòu)）2) 內(nèi)容具體化同位結(jié)構(gòu)：抽象名詞（theory/evidence/belief/principle）+that 從句，that從句對(duì)抽象名詞進(jìn)行具體化解釋（注意與of 結(jié)構(gòu)的區(qū)別），that從句部分才是同位語(yǔ)。（以下三種，）i. N., n.。b) 必須對(duì)其修飾對(duì)象具有解釋力；c) 位置：名詞前或名詞后，一般在修飾對(duì)象的后面；d) 不影響主謂一致（謂語(yǔ)應(yīng)該和主語(yǔ)保持一致，而不是和同位語(yǔ)）；e) 同位結(jié)構(gòu)中名詞的數(shù)可以和其修飾對(duì)象的數(shù)不一致。如表里的最后一個(gè)例子。作用就像是一個(gè)長(zhǎng)的形容詞，前一兩個(gè)單詞決定它的詞性。所以這里應(yīng)該選擇supposedly修飾Irish。所以選擇用supposed去修飾名詞ancestor。這兩個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)的意思是不一樣的，要通過(guò)作者的意思來(lái)選擇。如： Amy is feel GOOD. (good修飾主語(yǔ)Amy.)在語(yǔ)法考題里經(jīng)常會(huì)出現(xiàn)兩個(gè)語(yǔ)法修飾結(jié)構(gòu)：形容詞+形容詞+名詞：在此結(jié)構(gòu)中，兩個(gè)形容詞都修飾名詞。副詞通常以ly結(jié)尾。（2）this/these不用來(lái)代替名詞，在this/these后面沒(méi)有名詞時(shí)，不能夠作為單獨(dú)使用的代詞。Their是最經(jīng)常在口語(yǔ)中被錯(cuò)誤使用的詞，如：WRONG ：Whenever a student calls, take down THEIR information. RIGHT ： Whenever a student calls, take down HIS or HER information. 指示代詞this, that, these, those（1）that和those指的是前文出現(xiàn)的某個(gè)事物，但與it/them不同的是，it/them指的就是前文出現(xiàn)的那個(gè)事物，而that/those指的是和前文這個(gè)事物一樣的另一個(gè)事物。 如：The board is investigating several executives’ pensation packages in order to determine how much may have been improperly awarded to Them應(yīng)該指代executives，但是由于executives’ 是所有格結(jié)構(gòu)，不能作為指代對(duì)象，從而使得them錯(cuò)誤地指代了packages。如：SUPERNOVAS destroy their immediate environments in vast explosions, BUT by synthesizing heavy chemical elements, THEY provide the universe with the possibility of biochemistrybased life as we know it.（2）在所有格結(jié)構(gòu)中的名詞一般不作為指代對(duì)象。主格代詞可以做句子主語(yǔ)；賓格代詞可以是動(dòng)詞賓語(yǔ)或者介詞賓語(yǔ)；所有格代詞表示所有權(quán)或者一個(gè)相似的關(guān)系。因此不要被句子中間的插入內(nèi)容所迷惑，必須找到真正的指代對(duì)象。指代必須清晰，每一個(gè)代詞只能有一個(gè)指代對(duì)象，否則句子就存在歧義，必須修改。指代對(duì)象和代詞必須在邏輯上一致，這也是meaning原則的要求。每一個(gè)代詞都必須在句子中有指代對(duì)象（除了第一人稱的代詞）。PRONOUNS代詞指代的最關(guān)鍵幾步是：找到代詞的指代對(duì)象，考慮指代對(duì)象替代代詞的位置后句子是否邏輯上合理，代詞是否存在唯一的指代對(duì)象，以及代詞與其指代對(duì)象是否在數(shù)量上一致。） RIGHT： The bouquet of flowers WAS a gift of love. 常見(jiàn)系動(dòng)詞To BeOther Linking Verbsisappearseemarebeesmellwasfeelsoundweregrowstayamlooktastebeenremainturnbeenrepresentbeingresemble注意不要把進(jìn)行時(shí)結(jié)構(gòu)和被動(dòng)結(jié)構(gòu)中的BE動(dòng)詞看做暗示平行結(jié)構(gòu)。當(dāng)使用系動(dòng)詞表達(dá)主語(yǔ)的一些特點(diǎn)時(shí)，主語(yǔ)和賓語(yǔ)（實(shí)際是表語(yǔ)）在句子結(jié)構(gòu)上是平行的（也就是必須是同一詞性、性質(zhì)的事物），同時(shí)在邏輯意思上也必須是平行的。注意主系表結(jié)構(gòu)。如： Sal applied himself in his new job, arriving early every day, skipping lunch regularly, AND leaving late every night. 在這個(gè)句子中，apply是中心謂語(yǔ)，而arriving, skipping和leaving都是為了補(bǔ)充提供更多的信息來(lái)說(shuō)明Sal如何apply himself，是從屬性的。如： She argues THAT the agency acts WITH reckless abandon AND WITH disregard for human life AND property, AND THAT it should therefore be abandoned.一些必須使用平行結(jié)構(gòu)的慣用語(yǔ)：要求使用平行結(jié)構(gòu)的慣用語(yǔ)X Acts As YDistinguish X from YX is the Same As YAs X, So YEstimate X To Be YX is good, and So Too is YBetween X And YX Instead Of YX, Such As Y(example)Compare To X, YX is Known To Be YThink Of X As YConsider X YX is Less Than YX is Thought To Be YIn Contrast To X, YMake X YView X As YDeclare X YMistake X For YWhether X Or YX, Develops Into YNot Only X(,) But Also YX Differs From YRegard X As Y區(qū)分真平行還是假平行：在使一個(gè)句子語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu)上做到平行之前，必須首先確認(rèn)句子的邏輯意思是否暗示了平行。句子中可能會(huì)出現(xiàn)多組平行或者多層的平行，此時(shí)要區(qū)分不同的邏輯層次，區(qū)分在不同邏輯層次下的平行。如： Ralph likes BOTH THOSE WHO are popular AND THOSE WHO are not.And是平行結(jié)構(gòu)中最常用的詞，在句子中見(jiàn)到and時(shí)，一定要注意尋找平行結(jié)構(gòu)的各個(gè)平行項(xiàng)目。其中，從句平行必須以同樣的引導(dǎo)詞開(kāi)頭。平行并不要求各個(gè)平行部分的每個(gè)詞都平行，只需要中心詞平行即可。主語(yǔ)為單數(shù)主語(yǔ)為復(fù)數(shù)主語(yǔ)單復(fù)數(shù)決定于句子本身a singular subject linked to other nouns by an additive phrasesubject joined by andsubjects joined by or/norcollective nounsmost indefinite pronouns(except SANAM)SANAM pronounssubjects perceded by each or