【正文】
m a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high pressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its pressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to pensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element. It is this deviation in the position of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two ponents of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and pacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product bees strong, durable, and, in bination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system. The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be pacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are pacted by means of high frequency powerdriven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete. 畢 業(yè) 設(shè) 計(jì) 8 Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50176。這些實(shí)際困難可以采用兩種方法來(lái)克服。對(duì)于這種分析來(lái)說(shuō),應(yīng)該了解活載及其所引起的盈利的分布規(guī)律、材料的力學(xué)性能的分散性和截面的結(jié)構(gòu)幾何尺寸的分散性。 就給定的安全系數(shù)而論,所有這些參數(shù)的確定都是以建筑物的最佳成本為依據(jù)的。 此外,概率理論意味著可以基于下面幾個(gè)因素來(lái)確定允許的危險(xiǎn)率,例如: 建筑物的重要性和建筑物破壞造成的危害性; ( 2) 由于建筑物破壞使生活受到威脅的人數(shù); ( 3) 修復(fù)建筑的可能性; ( 4) 建筑物的預(yù)期壽命。 至少在理論上,概率法的主要優(yōu)點(diǎn)是可以科學(xué)的考慮所有隨機(jī)安全系數(shù),然后將這些隨機(jī)安全系數(shù)組合成確定的安全系數(shù)。通常采用下面兩種計(jì)算方法: 確定性的方法,這種方法采用容許應(yīng)力。 把對(duì)應(yīng)于不乘以荷載系數(shù)的活載和恒載的工作(使用)條件的應(yīng)力與規(guī)定值(使用極限狀態(tài))相比較。由理論分析確定的這一最大強(qiáng)度應(yīng)不小于結(jié)構(gòu)承受 計(jì)算荷載所算得的強(qiáng)度(極限狀態(tài))。 此外,根據(jù)安全系數(shù)的不同用途,可以把結(jié)構(gòu)的計(jì)算方法分為: 畢 業(yè) 設(shè) 計(jì) 5 ( 1) 容許應(yīng)力法,在這種方法中,把結(jié)構(gòu)承受最大荷載時(shí)計(jì)算得到的應(yīng)力與經(jīng)過(guò)按規(guī)定的安全系數(shù)進(jìn)行折減后的材料強(qiáng)度作比較。 根據(jù)不同的安全度條件,可以把結(jié)構(gòu)驗(yàn)算所采用的計(jì)算方法分成: ( 1) 確定性的方法,在這種方法中,把主要參數(shù)看作非隨機(jī)參數(shù)。 ( 2) 使用極限狀態(tài),它對(duì)應(yīng)著結(jié)構(gòu)的使用功能和耐久性。通常有兩種類(lèi)型的極限狀態(tài),即: ( 1) 強(qiáng)度極限狀態(tài),它相當(dāng)于結(jié)構(gòu)能夠達(dá)到的最大承載能力。這個(gè)比值還與結(jié)構(gòu)的破壞概率(危險(xiǎn)率)成 反比。 結(jié)構(gòu)的安全度 規(guī)范的主要目的是提供一般性的設(shè)計(jì)原理和計(jì)算方法,以便驗(yàn)算結(jié)構(gòu)的安全度。必須記住翻斗車(chē)與自卸卡車(chē)之間的區(qū)別。的自裝式翻斗車(chē),和容量約為 m179。最小的翻斗車(chē)的 容量大約為 立方米,而最大的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)型翻斗車(chē)的容量大約為 179。 翻斗機(jī)可能是使用最為普遍的輪胎式運(yùn)輸設(shè)備,因?yàn)樗鼈冞€可以被用來(lái)送混凝土或者其他建筑材料。最大的自行式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)鏟斗容量為 19 立方米(滿載時(shí)為 25 m179。 斗式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)通常是功率非常大的機(jī)械,許多廠家制造的鏟運(yùn)機(jī)鏟斗容量為 8 m179。在挖掘硬土?xí)r,人們發(fā)現(xiàn)在開(kāi)挖場(chǎng)地經(jīng)常用一輛助推拖拉機(jī)(輪式或履帶式 ),對(duì)返回挖土的鏟運(yùn)機(jī)進(jìn)行助推這種施工方法是經(jīng)濟(jì)的。 在比較平坦的場(chǎng)地開(kāi)挖,如果用拉鏟或正鏟挖土機(jī)運(yùn)輸距離太遠(yuǎn)時(shí),則裝有輪畢 業(yè) 設(shè) 計(jì) 4 胎式的斗式鏟運(yùn)機(jī)就是比不可少的。每種機(jī)械設(shè)備應(yīng)該進(jìn)行最適合它的性能的作業(yè)。 正鏟挖土機(jī)介于推土機(jī)和拉鏟挖土機(jī)的之間,其作用半徑大于推土機(jī),但小于拉鏟挖土機(jī)。拉鏟挖土機(jī)的缺點(diǎn)是只能挖比它本身低的土,不能施加壓力挖入壓實(shí)的土壤內(nèi),不能在陡坡上挖土,而且挖。拉鏟挖土機(jī)的工作半徑最大。拉鏟挖土機(jī)。 費(fèi)用最低的運(yùn)土方法是用同一臺(tái)機(jī)械直接挖方取土并且卸土作為填方。根據(jù)現(xiàn)有的地圖和標(biāo)高,道路工程師應(yīng)在設(shè)計(jì)繪圖室中的工作也并不是徒勞的。為了降低土方工程費(fèi)用,填方量應(yīng)該等于挖方量,而且挖方地點(diǎn)應(yīng)該盡可能靠近土方量相等的填方地點(diǎn),以減少運(yùn)輸量和填