【正文】 from varying angles, such as a top, front, side, or isometric view. A toolpath that looks correct from a top view, may show from a front view that the depth of the cutting tool is incorrect. Changes can easily be made and seen immediately. When the toolpath and the sequence of operations are satisfactory, machine ready code has to be made. This is as easy as specifying the CNC machine that is to be used to machine the part. The code generator for that specific CNC machine during processing accesses four different files. The JOBPLAN file for the tool information and the GRAPHICE file for the toolpath and cutting sequence. It also uses the MACHINE DEFINE file which defines the CNC code words for that specific machine. This file also supplies data for maximum feed rates, RPM, toolchange times, and so on. The fourth file taking part in the code generating process is the TEMPLATE file. This file acts like a ruler that produces the CNC code with all of its parts in the right place and sequence. When the code generation is plete, a projected machining time is displayed. This time is calculated from values such as feed rates and distances traveled, noncutting movements at maximum feed rates between points, tool change times, and so on. The projected machining time can be revised by changing tooling to allow for higher metal removal rates or creating a more efficient toolpath. This display of total time required can also be used to estimate production costs. If more then one CNC machine tool is available to machine this part, making code and paring the machining time may show that one machine is more efficient than the others. CAD/CAM Another method of creating toolpath is with the use of a Computeraided Drafting (CAD) file. Most machine drawings are created using puters with the description and part geometry stored in the puter database. SmartCAM, though its CAM CONNECTION, will read a CAD file and transfer its geometry represents the part profile, holes, and so on. The programmer still needs to prepare a JOBPLAN with all the necessary tools, but instead of programming a profile line by line, now only a tool has to be assigned to an existing profile. Again, using the SHOWPATH function will display the toolpath for each tool and their sequence. Constant research and developments in CAD/CAM interaction will change how they work with each other. Some CAD and CAM programs, if loaded on the same puter, make it possible to switch between the two with a few keystrokes, designing and programming at the same time. The work area around the machine needs to be kept clean and clear of obstructions to prevent slipping or tripping. Machine surfaces should not be used as worktables. Use proper lifting methods to handle heavy workpieces, fixtures, or heavy cutting tools. Make measurements only when the spindle has e to a plete standstill. Chips should never be handled with bare hands. Before starting the machine make sure that the workholding device and the workpiece are securely fastened. When changing cutting tools, protect the workpiece being machined from damage, and protect your hands from sharp cutting edges. Use only sharp cutting tools. Check that cutting tools are installed correctly and securely. Do not operate any machine controls unless you understand their function and what they will do. The Early Development Of Numerically Controlled Machine Tools The highly sophisticated CNC machine tools of today, in the vast and diverse range found throughout the field of manufacturing processing, started from very humble beginnings in a number of the major industrialized countries. Some of the earliest research and development work in this field was pleted in USA and a mention will be made of the UK39。s Actual Chip Thickness, a program used to calculate the chip thickness in relation to feedpertooth for a milling cutter, especially during a shallow finishing cut. Ingersoll39。s TOOLPRO, software designed to help select the best tool grade, speed, and feed rates for different work materials in turning application. Another very important feature of TOOLPRO is the display of the horsepower requirement for each machining selection. This allow the programmer to select a bination of cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut that equals the machine39。 conversational input is also called userfriendly or prompted input. Later in this section examples of each of these programming formats in machining applications will be describes. CAM and CNC CAM systems have changed the job of the CNC programmer from one manually producing CNC code to one maximizing the output of CNC machines. Since CNC machine tools are made by a great number of manufacturers, many different CNC control units are in use. Control units from different manufacturers use a variety of program formats and codes. Many CNC code words are identical for different controllers, but a great number vary from one to another. To produce an identical part on CNC machine tools with different controllers such as one by FANCU, OKUMA or DYNAPATH, would require pletely different CNC codes. Each manufacturer is constantly improving and updating its CNC controllers. These improvements often include additional code words plus changes in how the existing code works. A CAM system allows the CNC programmer to concentrate on the creation of an efficient machining process, rather than relearning changed code formats. A CNC programmer looks at the print of a part and then plans the sequence of machining operations necessary to make it (Figure O3). This plan includes everything, from the selection of possible CNC machine tools, to which tooling to use, to how the part is held while machining takes place. The CNC programmer has to have a thoroughunderstanding of all the ca