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【正文】 er that the speaker means more than he says) Some further investigation ? The unmarked form is used for a stereotypical, unmarked situation (via Rprinciple), while the marked counterpart is used for the situation left over (via Qprinciple). Black Bart killed the sheriff. Black Bart caused the sheriff to die. Lee stopped the car. Lee caused the car to stop. ? Therefore, “the use of a marked (relatively plex and/or prolix) expression when a corresponding unmarked (simpler, less “effortful) alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message (ne which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed) The Q, I and Mprinciples ? Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Binding and Control Phenomena (1987) ? Contrast between semantic minimization and expression minimization: ? Semantic / content minimization is equivalent to semantic generality. The more general terms are more minimal in meaning, while the more specific terms are more maximal in meaning. ? That is, to stop a car means to stop a car in a typical way, while to cause the car to stop means to stop the car in a rather not normal way. ? Semantic minimization has to do with the Iprinciple, expression minimization has to do with the Mprinciple. ? Heuristics (2020) ? Heuristic 1: what isn’t said, isn’t.(QHeuristic) ? Heuristic 2: what is simply described is stereotypically exemplified.(IHeuristic) ? Heuristic 3: what’s said in an abnormal way, isn’t normal。 or Marked message indicates marked situation.(MHeuristic) ? Qheuristics (Grice quantity 1) ? Scalar implicatures Some of the boys came. Not all the boys came. all, some ? Clausal implicature If eating eggs is bad for you, you should give up omelets Eating eggs may be bad for you, or it may not be bad for you. Since eating eggs is bad for you, you should give up omelets. (since p, q), (if p, q) ? IHeuristic: one need not say what can be taken for granted. John turned the key and the engine started. John unpacked the piic. The beer was warm. ? MHeuristics: what is said simply, briefly, in an unmarked way picks up the stereotypical interpretation。 if in contrast a marked expression is used, it is suggested that the stereotypical interpretation should be avoided. Bill stopped the car. Bill caused the car to stop. Summary ? Speech Act Theory Performativeconstative Felicitous condition Locutionary/illocutionary/perlocutionary acts ? The Theory of Conversational Implicature Cooperative Principle (Quality, Quantity, Relation,Manner) Violation of maxims Characteristics of implicature ? PostGricean Development Relevance theory Qand Rprinciples Q, I and Mprinciples
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