【正文】 red， but is remended by a council guideline， and most Dutch panies provide one. Small panies are exempt from the requirements for an audit， and they may file an abbreviated ine statement and balance sheet. 52 Mediumsized panies must be audited， but may publish a condensed ine statement. Small， Mediumsized， and large panies are defined in the civil code. Dutch panies are permitted to prepare financial statements using IFRS or . GAAP instead of Dutch accounting standards. 53 Accounting Measurements() The Dutch flexibility toward accounting measurements may be most evident in permitting the use of current values for tangible assets. Because Dutch panies have flexibility in applying measurement rules， one would suspect that there are opportunities for ine smoothing. In addition， certain items can bypass the ine statement through direct adjustment to reserves in shareholders’equity. 54 荷蘭會計(jì)的特征 ，稅法對財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)告的影響不大。 2. 荷蘭是唯一設(shè)置會計(jì)法庭的國家。隸屬于會計(jì)法庭的商會可就報(bào)表爭議對企業(yè)采取法律行為。 3．荷蘭會計(jì)的重要特征是極端的自由選擇與高度的職業(yè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)相結(jié)合。 55 United Kingdom Accounting in the United Kingdom developed as an independent discipline， pragmatically responding to the needs and practices of business. Over time， successive panies laws added structure and other requirements， but still allowed accountants considerable flexibility in the application of professional judgment. 56 Since the 1970s the most important source of development in pany law has been the EU Directives， most notably the 4th and 7th. At the same time， accounting standards and the standardsetting process have bee more authoritative. The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to develop an accountancy profession. The concept of a fair presentation of financial results and position (the true and fair view) is also of British origin. 57 Accounting Regulation and Enforcement 英國會計(jì)準(zhǔn)則的制定經(jīng)歷了三個階段 : 第一階段是 1970年之前，在 《 公司法 》 規(guī)定下，依靠不成文的慣例進(jìn)行規(guī)范； 第二階段是 1970 1990年，由六大會計(jì)團(tuán)體組建了專門的準(zhǔn)則制定機(jī)構(gòu) — ASC， 制定書面的、成文的《 會計(jì)準(zhǔn)則 》 ； 58 第三階段是 1990 年至今。 1990 年 8 月，一個獨(dú)立的機(jī)構(gòu) — ASB取代 ASC. ASB制訂的會計(jì)準(zhǔn)則稱為 《 財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)告準(zhǔn)則 》 ( Financial Reporting Standards，簡稱 FRS). 59 Financial Reporting British financial reporting is among the most prehensive in the world. Financial statements generally include: 1. directors’ report 2. profit and loss account and balance sheet 3. cash flow statement 4. statement of total recognized gains and losses 5. statement of accounting policies 6. notes referenced in the financial statements 7. auditor’s report 60 Financial statements must present a true and fair view of a pany’s state of affairs and profits. To achieve this， additional information may be necessary， and in exceptional circumstances requirements may be overridden. The latter is known as the “true and fair override.” 61 Small and mediumsized panies are exempt from many financial reporting obligations. The panies Act sets out size criteria. In general， small and mediumsized panies are permitted to prepare abbreviated accounts with certain minimum prescribed information. 62 Accounting Measurements() Assets may be valued at historical cost， current cost，or (as most panies do) using a mixture of the two. All . panies are permitted to use IFRS instead of . GAAP. Thus the EU 2022 initiative for listed panies is extended to nonlisted . panies as well. 63 英國會計(jì)的特征 英國會計(jì)的一個最主要的特征是強(qiáng)調(diào) “ 真實(shí)和公允 ” ，這一要求在 1948年的 《 公司法 》 中最終確定之后一直沿用至今，并通過歐盟指令影響到歐洲大陸的其他國家。 但是英國的法律從未定義過 “ 真實(shí)和公允 ” 的概念，它的含義是由會計(jì)職業(yè)界判斷的。這有利于應(yīng)付錯綜復(fù)雜的實(shí)際情況，但難免帶來不確定因素，造成實(shí)務(wù)處理中一些認(rèn)識和判斷上的分歧。 64 一般認(rèn)為， “ 真實(shí)和公允 ” 是指財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)告符合公認(rèn)會計(jì)原則和 《 公司法 》 ，以誠實(shí)的態(tài)度披露所有真實(shí)的、可信的重要信息，不抱偏見，不隱瞞或忽略重大事實(shí)；必要時可超出規(guī)定要求披露有關(guān)細(xì)節(jié)。 如果在某些情況下，按照 《 公司法 》 和會計(jì)準(zhǔn)則的要求編制財(cái)務(wù)報(bào)表不能給予 “ 真實(shí)和公允 ” 的反映時，公司可以不按 《 公司法 》 和會計(jì)準(zhǔn)則的要求去做，但必須在報(bào)表注釋中說明原因和產(chǎn)生的影響。 65 Summary of significant accounting practices ()