【文章內(nèi)容簡(jiǎn)介】 t he story unfolds, es to impl y an ampl it ude of meanings: among them the for ces of nat ur e and the whol e univer se. Literary symbols are of two broad types: one type i ncludes t hose embodying uni versal suggesti ons of meani ng. Fl owi ng water suggest s t ime and eternit y, a journey i nt o t he underworl d and r et ur n fr om it is interpreted as a spiri tual experience or a dark night of the soul, and a ki nd of re dempti ve odyssey. Such symbols are used widel y (and somet imes unconsciously) in west er n lit er at ur e. The ot her type of symbol secures it s uggesti veness not fr om qualit ies i nherent i n itsel f but from t he way in which it is used in a given wor k, in a special cont ext . Thus, in Moby Di ck t he voyage, the land, and the ocean ar e object s pr egnant with meani ngs that sem almost independent of t he author ’s use of them in the st or y。 on the other hand, t he whit e whale is i nvested wit h di f er ent meani ngs for dif er ent cr ew members through t he handli ng of mater ials in t he novel. Simi larly, in Hemingway’s A Far ewel to Ar ms, rain, whi ch i s general y regarded as a symbol of lif e (especi al ly in spring), and which is a mil dl y annoying meteor ol ogical phenomenon i n the openi ng chapter, is conver ted into a symbol of death thr ough the uses to which it i s put i n the wor k. 3. Symbol s in f ict ion are i nanimate object s Often symbols we met in fi ct ion ar e inanimate object s. In Wi li am Faulker ’s “A Rose f or Em il y,” Mis Emi ly’s invisi bl e but percept ible watch ticking at the end of a golden chai n not only i ndicates t he pasage of t ime, but suggest t hat time pases wit hout even being noti ced by the watch’s owner. The golden chain t o whi ch i t i s at tached car ies uggesti ons of wealth and author it y. Other t hi ngs may also funct ion symbol ical ly. I n James Joyce’ s “Araby, ” the very name of the bazzar, Araby—the poetic name for Ar abia—suggests magi c, r omance, and The Arabian Nights。 i ts syll ables, the nar rator tels us, “cast an Eastern enchantment over me. ” Even a locale, or a feature of physical t opogr aphy, can provi de r ich symbol ic suggestions. The caf233。 in Er nest Hemingway’s “A Cl ean, Wel Lighted Pl ace” is not mer el y a caf233。, but an i sl and of r ef uge fr om sl eples night , chaos, lonel iness, old age, the meaningl essness of l if e, and impending death. In some novels and stori es, some char acters are symboli c. Such charact er s usual y appear br iefl y and remai n sl ight ly myst er ious. In J oseph Cornar d’ s Heart of Darknes, a steamship pany t hat hi res men t o wor k in Congo maintains i n it s wait ing room two wom en who kni t bl ack wool —t hey sym bol i ze t he cl assi cal Fat es. Such a char act er i s seen as a por t r ai t r at her t han as a per son, at l east por t r ai t l i ke. Faul kner ’ s Mi ss Em i l y, t wi ce appear s at a wi ndow of her houses “l(fā) i ke t he car ven t or so of an i dol i n t he ni che. ” Though Faul kner i nvest s her wi t h l i f e and vi gor , he al so cl ot hes her i n sym bol i c hi nt s: she seem s al m ost to t ypes of sent ence ar e used, what is thei r functi on? Sentence plexity: Do sent ences on whole have a simple or a pl ex str ucture? What i s t he aver age sentence length? Does plexity vary stri kingl y from one sentence to another? Is pl exit y mai nl y due to ( i) coordination, ( i) subordination, ( i ) juxt aposit ion of clauses or of other equi valent str uctures? I n what par ts of t he t ext does pl exit y tend t o occur ? clause t ypes: What types of clauses ar e favored—r elati ve clauses, adver bial clauses, or dif ferent types of nominal clauses? Are non fi ni te for ms monly used, and if so, of what ypes are t hey (i nf init ive, i ng f orm, ed form, ver bl ess st ruct ur e) ? What is t heir funct ion? Cl ause str ucture: Is there anything si gni ficant about clause el ements (eg fr equency of obj ects, adver bi al s, plements。 of tr ansit ve or intr ansi tive ver b const ruct ions)? Ar e ther e any unusual orderings (init ial adverbi als, fr onti ng of object or plement, etc)? Do speci al kinds of cl ause constr ucti on occur (such as t hose wi th preparator y it or there)? Noun phr ases: Are they relatively simple or pl ex? Wher e does the pl exity l ie (i n pr emodif icat ion by adject ives, nouns, etc, or in postmodif icat ion by preposit ion by preposit ional phrases, r el at ive cl auses, etc)? Ver b phr ases: Ar e ther e any signi ficant departures fr om the use of t he simple past tense? For example, noti ce occurr ences and f unctions of the present t ense, of the progr essive aspect , of the per fect aspect, of modal auxil iaries. other phrase t ypes: Is there anything to be said about ot her phr ases types, such as preposi ti onal phr ases, adver b phr ases, adject ive phrases? Wor d cl asses: Havi ng alr eady considered maj or word clases, we may consider minor wor d cl asses (eg functi onal wor ds), such as preposit ons, conj unct ions, pr onouns, determiners, auxi liari es, interjections. Are par ti cular wor ds of these types used for part icul ar ef fect ( eg demonst rati ves such as this and t hat, negatives such as not, not hi ng)? Gener al : Note whether any general types of grammatical construction are used to special ef ect (eg par at ive or super lati ve constructions, coordinative or l isting constructions, par enthet ical constructions, interj ecti ons and aftert hought s as occur i n causal speech). And see to the number of li st and coordinat ions. Fi gures of Speech Here we consider t he f eatures whi ch are f or egrounded by vir tue of depart ing in some way fr om gener al nor ms of municat ion by means of the language code, for exampl e, exploit at ion of deviati ons fr om the li nguist ic code. Grammatical and l exical schemes ( foregr ounded r