【文章內(nèi)容簡介】 rmine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.確定一種語言的音位的一個基本途徑是，看如果用一個語音代替另一個是否會產(chǎn)生不同的意義。如果產(chǎn)生了，那么這兩個語音就代表不同的音位。為此，一個簡單的辦法就是找出最小對立對。When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.最小對立對是指除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置上的一個音之外其余都相同的兩個語音組合，如[pen]和[ben]。9. Some rules in phonology幾條音系規(guī)則A) sequential rules 系列規(guī)則The rules that govern the bination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.在一種特定的語言中，語音的組合是受規(guī)則制約的，這些規(guī)則叫做系列規(guī)則。重要的規(guī)則：I. 如果單詞以[l] 或[r] 為首，其后的一個語音必定為元音，如rude, last, leapII. 如果三個輔音同時出現(xiàn)在單詞詞首，則：第一音位必定為/s/，第二音位必定是/p//t//k/，第三音位必定是/l//r//w/，如strict, splendid, springIII. 塞擦音[tF][dV]和咝音[s] [z] [F] [V] 后不能緊跟另一個咝音，如teach變復(fù)數(shù)為teaches[ti:tFiz]。IV. 制約音位模式的規(guī)則是隨語言的不同而不同的，英語中適用，其它語言卻不適用。B) assimilation rules 同化規(guī)則The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.同化規(guī)則即通過“模仿”一個系列音位的一個特征使一個語音與另一個語音相似，從而使兩個音素變得相似。重要的規(guī)則：I. 元音后緊跟一個鼻音時，該元音要鼻音話。如bean/ green 中的[i:]音。II. 在一個單詞中，鼻音[n]所處的發(fā)音部位和緊隨其后的輔音的發(fā)音部位變得一樣。如correct –incorrect。III. 語音同化規(guī)則也體現(xiàn)在有關(guān)單詞的拼寫中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因為[n]音同化成了[m]音。C) deletion rules 省略規(guī)則The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.省略規(guī)則告訴我們什么時候一個語音盡管在拼寫中存在，但在發(fā)音中卻省略了。重要的規(guī)則：I. 如[g]音出現(xiàn)在位于詞尾的一個鼻輔音前時要省略。如sign中的[g]音不發(fā)音。而在加了后綴的signature中，[g]卻要發(fā)音的。10. Suprasegmental features stress, tone, intonation超切分特征：重音、聲調(diào)和語調(diào)Distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.區(qū)別性特征也可以在由兩個或多個音位切分成分所組成的系列中體現(xiàn)出來。出現(xiàn)在切分層面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它們時音節(jié)、單詞和句子等語言單位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音調(diào)和語調(diào)。A) Stress 重音重要的規(guī)則：I. 一個單詞如果既可以作名詞，又可以作動詞，則名詞重音在第一個音節(jié)上，相應(yīng)的動詞重音則在第二個音節(jié)上。如import。II. 英語復(fù)合詞的重音常在第一個成分上，第二個成分是次重音。如hotdog。B) Tone 聲調(diào)英語不是聲調(diào)語言，這里不作研究。C) Intonation 語調(diào)When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.當(dāng)音高、重音和音長依附于一個句子而不是單個單詞時，這些音素合起來叫做語調(diào)。English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fallrise tone, and the risefall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.英語中有四種基本語調(diào)：降調(diào)、升調(diào)、降升調(diào)、升降調(diào)。最常用的是前三種。 ※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter 3 Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)Definition定義Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 形態(tài)學(xué)是語法的一個分支，研究詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)和構(gòu)詞規(guī)則。Morphology is divided into two subbranches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.形態(tài)學(xué)可分為兩個分支科學(xué)：屈折形態(tài)學(xué)和詞匯或派生形態(tài)學(xué)。前者研究詞的屈折變化，后者研究詞的構(gòu)成。2. Morpheme 語素The smallest meaningful unit of language語言最小的意義單位。The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.語素表達的意義有兩種：詞匯意義和語法意義。3. Types of morphemes 語素的分類a) Free morphemes 自由語素Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in bination with other morphemes.自由語素是獨立的意義單位，能夠獨自自由使用，當(dāng)然也可以和其它語素結(jié)合使用。b) Bound morphemes 黏著語素 Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be bined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.黏著語素是那些不能單獨使用，而必須和其它語素－自由語素或黏著語素－結(jié)合在一起以形成一個單詞的語素。4. Types of bound morphemes 黏著語素的分類Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 詞根和詞綴。A root is often seen as part of word。 it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning。 it must be bined with another root or an affix to form a word.詞根被看作是詞的一部分，它有清楚、明確的意思，但不能單獨存在，它必須和另一個詞根或詞綴組合構(gòu)成單詞。Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折詞綴和派生詞綴Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:屈折詞綴或屈折語素表明各種不同的語法關(guān)系或語法范疇，如：數(shù)、時態(tài)、形容詞和副詞的級和格。現(xiàn)在英語中的屈折詞綴包括：(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名詞復(fù)數(shù)(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示現(xiàn)在時的第三人稱單數(shù)(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示過去時ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示進行時er, indicating parative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容詞和副詞比較級est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容詞和副詞最高級‘s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名詞的所有格Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very mon way to create new words in English. Such a way of wordformation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.派生詞綴加在一個原有的單詞上以構(gòu)成一個新詞。這是英語中的一個很常見的構(gòu)成新詞的方式，這樣的方式叫派生法，用派生法構(gòu)成的新詞叫派生詞。能夠加上一個派生詞綴的原有語素叫做詞干。詞干可以是一個黏著詞根、自由語素或者本身就是一個派生詞。實例：Tolerate 詞根toler ＋ 詞綴ateQuickly 自由語素quick ＋ 詞綴lyCarelessness 自由語素care ＋詞綴less 形成的派生詞careless ＋詞綴nessAffixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前綴和后綴Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be” and “en (m)”.前綴改變詞干的意思，但通常不改變原詞的詞性。“be” 和“en (m)”是例外。Suffixes are added to the end of the stem, they modify=y the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.后綴加在詞干的末尾，改變原詞的意思，并且在多數(shù)情況下，改變原詞的詞性。