【文章內(nèi)容簡介】 pany.Advertising is a nonpersonal form of promotion that is delivered through selected media outlets that, under most circumstances, require the marketer to pay for message placement. Advertising has long been viewed as a method of mass promotion in that a single message can reach a large number of people. But, this mass promotion approach presents problems since many exposed to an advertising message may not be within the marketer’s target market, and thus, may be an inefficient use of promotional funds. However, this is changing as new advertising technologies and the emergence of new media outlets offer more options for targeted advertising.Advertising had a history of being considered a oneway form of marketing munication where the message receiver，is not in position to immediately respond to the message. This is changing at the same time. For example, in the next few years technologies will be readily available to enable a television viewer to click a button to request more details on a product seen on their favorite TV program. In fact, it is expected that over the next 1020 years advertising will move away from a oneway munication model and bee one that is highly interactive.Advertisements can also be seen on the seats of grocery carts, on the walls of an airport walkway, on the sides of buses, heard in telephone hold messages and instore public address systems. Advertisements are usually placed anywhere an audience can easily and/or frequently access visuals and/or audio and print.5Organizations which frequently spend large sums of money on advertising but do not strictly sell a product or service to the general public include: political parties, interest groups and religionsupporting organizations. Additionally, some nonprofit organizations are not typical advertising clients and rely upon free channels, such as public service announcements.3. Culture Culture is hard to define. Scholars have tried to define culture in a satisfactory manner, but each is dissatisfied with the other’s definitions. As a result, we now have over 150 different definitions as reviewed by Kroeber and Kluckhohn in their book Culture, A Critical Review of Concept and Definition (1952).Culture from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning to cultivate (Harper, 2001), generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance. Cultures can be understood as systems of symbols and meanings that even their creators contest, that lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and pete with one another (Findley, 2006:14). Different definitions of culture reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. Different Aspects of CultureCulture is manifested in music, literature, lifestyle, painting and sculpture, theater and film and similar things (Williams, 1976:87). Although some people identify culture in terms of consumption and consumer goods as in high culture, low culture, folk culture, or popular culture (Berger, 1971), anthropologists understand culture to refer not only to consumption goods, but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes bee embedded. For them, culture thus includes art, science, as well as moral systems.6 Culture as civilizationIt is believed that the idea of culture was developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. This notion of culture reflected inequalities within European societies, and between European powers and their colonies around the world. It identifies culture with civilization and contrasts it with nature. One can classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others, and some people as more cultured than others. Some cultural theorists have thus tried to eliminate popular or mass culture from the definition of culture. Theorists such as Matthew Arnold or the Leavisites regard culture as simply the result of the best that has been thought and said in the world” (1882). Arnold contrasted mass/popular culture with social chaos or anarchy. Therefore, culture links closely with social cultivation: the progressive refinement of human behavior. Arnold consistently uses the word this way: ... culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world(1882).In practice, culture referred to elite activities such as museumcaliber art and classical music, and the word cultured described people who knew about, and took part in, these activities. These are often called high culture, to distinguish them from mass culture or popular culture.From the 19th century onwards, some social critics have accepted this contrast between the highest and lowest culture, but have stressed the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people39。s essential nature. Therefore, folk music, as produced by workingclass people, honestly expresses a natural way of life, and classical music seems superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrays Indigenous peoples as “noble savages” living authentic unblemished lives, unplicated and uncorrupted by the highlystratified capitalist systems of the West.7Today most social scientists reject the monadic conception of culture, and the opposition of culture to nature. They recognize nonelites as just as cultured as elites and nonWesterners as just as civilized simply regarding them as just cultured in a different way. Culture as worldviewDuring the Romantic era, scholars in Germany, especially those concerned with nationalist movements — such as the nationalist struggle to create a Germany out of diverse principalities,