【文章內(nèi)容簡(jiǎn)介】 may be called as stimulus or input or sometimes treatment. 3) The dependent variable (依變量 ) ? Variable the researcher is trying to change in his research. ? Variable which changes or is influenced according to changes in one or more independent variables. 4) Extraneous variables ? Variable that influences the results of a research project but has nothing to do with the experiment treatment. 5) Controlling the EV ① Environmental variables ② Subject variables (, mortality, mortality, maturation etc.) ③ Hawthorne effect and John Henry effect 3. Research questions and hypotheses 1) Research questions: A research question is the fundamental question inherent in the research topic. 2) What‘s a hypothesis? ? A statement which describes how the researcher expects his/her research to e out . what difference or relationship he expects to find. 3) Criteria for good hypotheses ① state an expected relationship or difference between 2 or more variables. ② state definite reasons for considering the hypothesis worthy of testing ③ be testable ④ be as brief and clear as possible 4) Types of hypotheses ① The null hypothesis ? It states that no relationship exists between the variables studied or no difference will be found between the experimental treatments. ? Students with low selfconcept who participate in a program of bibliotherapy will show no change in their attitude toward school. ② The Directional Hypothesis (onetailed hypothesis) It states a relationship between the variables being studied or a difference between experimental treatments that the researcher experts to emerge. (Indicating the direction of the results) Students with low selfconcept who participate in a program of bibliotherapy will show improvement in their attitude Applied Linguistics and its research methods （（ 何何 廣廣 鏗鏗 ）） （劉喜欽） 6 toward school. ③ Nondirectional hypothesis It doesn’t specify the direction of changes Students with low selfconcept who participate in a program of bibliotherapy will show changes in their attitude toward school. 4. Setting up of the experimental group and control group 1) The experimental group 2) The control group Ⅴ . Survey A survey is a detailed inspection or investigation 1. Types of survey 1) Questionnaire (written) 2) Interview (oral) 2. Steps in carrying out a survey (Nunan, 1992, —141) 1) Define objectives What do we want to find out? 2) Identify target population Who do we want to know about? 3) Literature review What have others said/discovered? 4) Determine samples How many subjects should we survey? 5) Identify survey instruments How will the data be collected? 6) Design survey procedures How will the data collection be carried out? 7) Identify analytical procedures How will the data be analysed? 8) Determine reporting procedures How will results be presented? 3. Uses of questionnaires and interviews 1) To get opinions, ideas, experiences of our subjects 2) To get data on language use in a particular munity ( Bolton and Luke, 1999) 4. Questionnaire design 1) Question types ① Open questions ② Closed questions (Oxford, 1990。 文秋芳 , 1995) 2) Question wording ① No leading questions ② No plex and confusing questions ③ No embarrassing questions ④ Items should be directly referenced against one or more of the research objectives. 3) Quantifying the responses —— Likert Scale 5. Questionnaire administration 1) Piloting — the try —out to assess its quality while it can still be revised and improved before it is used with the actual subjects in the research 2) Administration. ? To get a sufficient percentage of responses 6. Interview An interview is a directed conversation between an investigator and an individual or group of individuals in order to get information, ( Richards, et al, 1998) 1) Uses of interview ① To get data on stages and processes of language acquisition ② To assess proficiency ③ To investigate linguistic phenomena in munication ④ To get information 2) Types of interview ① structured Applied Linguistics and its research methods （（ 何何 廣廣 鏗鏗 ）） （劉喜欽） 7 ? The researcher works through a list of set questions in a predetermined order. ② Semi—structured ? The interviewer has a general idea of where he wants the interview to go, but does not enter the interview with a list of predetermined questions. ③ Unstructured ? It is guided by the responses of the interviewee rather than the agenda of the researcher. The researcher exercises little or no control and the direction of the interview is relatively unpredetermined. Suggestions for planning and conducting interviews ① Prepare the interview schedule ? The list of questions used by the interviewer is known as an interview schedule. ② Piloting ? Interview questions are piloted with a small sample of subjects before being used. ③ Selection of subjects ? Efforts should be made to secure a representative sample. ④ Good atmosphere ⑤ Use of recorders ⅥⅥ . Classroom observation and case studies 1. Observation methods ? ( in research ) procedures and techniques that are based on systematic observation of events, . using audio and video recorders, check list, etc. ? Observation methods are often used in studying language use and classroom events. ( Richards et al, 1998) 2. Types of observation (Seliger and Shohamy, 1997) 1) Non—participant observation ? the investigator observes and records or takes notes of the observed activities, but without the control or guidance of a questionnaire or other instrument. 2) Participant observation ? In the participant observation, the researchers are the observers。 they participate in