【文章內容簡介】 hey test the babies own food preferences, and babies typically prefer the graham crackers. But the question is, does this matter to babies in how they treat the puppets? And it matters a lot. They tend to prefer the puppet who has the same food tastes that they have, and worse, they actually prefer puppets who punish the puppet with the different food taste. (Laughter)
　　偏愛很快就展現出來。我的妻子也是我的同事，凱倫。維恩，在耶魯大學做了一系列有關嬰兒的研究她將幼兒放在玩偶旁邊，玩偶有它們各自喜愛的食物。 某個玩偶可能喜愛青豆。另個玩偶更愛全麥餅干。研究人員測試了幼兒們自身的食物偏好幼兒們代表性地更愛全麥餅干。問題是，這樣的喜好差別 會影響到幼兒們對待玩偶的態(tài)度嗎?確實有很大影響。幼兒們更喜歡和他們有相同口味偏好的玩具，更糟的是，幼兒們喜歡那些懲罰擁有不同口味同伴的玩偶。(笑聲)
　　We see this sort of ingroup, outgroup psychology all the time. We see it in political clashes within groups with different ideologies. We see it in its extreme in cases of war, where the outgroup isnamp。39。t merely given less, but dehumanized, as in the Nazi perspective of Jews as vermin or lice, or the American perspective of Japanese as rats.
　　這樣群體內外分別非常常見。政治沖突中也會展現在持有不同意識形態(tài)的群體。極端的例子通過戰(zhàn)爭展現，外群體不是被輕視而是被不當作人類對待， 如同納粹視猶太人為害蟲或是虱子，美國人視日本人為老鼠。
　　Stereotypes can also go awry. So often theyamp。39。re rational and useful, but sometimes theyamp。39。re irrational, they give the wrong answers, and other times they lead to plainly immoral consequences. And the case thatamp。39。s been most studied is the case of race. There was a fascinating study prior to the 2020 election where social psychologists looked at the extent to which the candidates were associated with America, as in an unconscious association with the American flag. And in one of their studies they pared Obama and McCain, and they found McCain is thought of as more American than Obama, and to some extent, people arenamp。39。t that surprised by hearing that. McCain is a celebrated war hero, and many people would explicitly say he has more of an American story than Obama. But they also pared Obama to British Prime Minister Tony Blair, and they found that Blair was also thought of as more American than Obama, even though subjects explicitly understood that heamp。39。s not American at all. But they were responding, of course, to the color of his skin.
　　刻板印象是會歪曲現實的。因此時常他們是理性的，有幫助的，但時常也會是非理性的，會給出錯誤的答案，有時會導致不道德的后果。最常被研究的案例是種族。 在2020年美國大選前有個極好的研究，社會心理學家研究被測者們是如何通過對美國國旗不知不覺的聯系和美國聯系在一起的。在其中一個研究中， 他們比較了奧巴馬和麥凱恩，他們發(fā)現麥凱恩比奧巴馬更加”。美國”。，某種程度上，人們甚至并未表示驚訝。麥凱恩是一個著名的戰(zhàn)爭英雄，很多人明確地說道 比起奧巴馬，麥凱恩有更多的美國故事。研究人員也比對了奧巴馬和英國首相布萊爾，他們發(fā)現比起奧巴馬人們認為布萊爾更加”。美國”。，即使他們完全知曉 布萊爾根本不是美國人。但人們回應，當然，因為膚色的原因。
　　These stereotypes and biases have realworld consequences, both subtle and very important. In one recent study, researchers put ads on eBay for the sale of baseball cards. Some of them were held by white hands, others by black hands. They were the same baseball cards. The ones held by black hands got substantially smaller bids than the ones held by white hands. In research done at Stanford, psychologists explored the case of people sentenced for the murder of a white person. It turns out, holding everything else constant, you are considerably more likely to be executed if you look like the man on the right than the man on the left, and this is in large part because the man on the right looks more prototypically black, more prototypically AfricanAmerican, and this apparently influences peopleamp。39。s decisions over what to do about him.
　　這樣的成見和偏好有著現世的影響，這有些微妙，也非常重要。在最近的一個研究中，研究人員在易趣(eBay)網站上投放廣告銷售籃球卡。有些賣家是白人， 另一些則是黑人。同樣的實驗也包括銷售棒球卡。黑人賣家得到的來自買家的出價價位略小于白人賣家。在斯坦福的一個研究項目也表明，心理學家研究了 因謀殺白人而被判刑的罪犯。結果表明，除去其他因素，比起圖片左邊的人(白人)圖片右邊的人(黑人)更可能被判死刑，這很大程度歸結于圖片右邊的人是黑人， 美國黑人，很明顯這影響到了人們對他所做出的決定。
　　So now that we know about this, how do we bat it? And there are different avenues. One avenue is to appeal to peopleamp。39。s emotional responses, to appeal to peopleamp。39。s empathy, and we often do that through stories. So if you are a liberal parent and you want to encourage your children to believe in the merits of nontraditional families, you might give them a book like this. [amp。quot。Heather Has Two Mommiesamp。quot。] If you are conservative and have a different attitude, you might give them a book like this. (Laughter) [amp。quot。Help! Mom! There Are Liberals under My Bed!amp。quot。] But in general, stories can turn anonymous strangers into people who matter, and the idea that we care about people when we focus on them as individuals is an idea which has shown up across history. So Stalin apocryphally said, amp。quot。A single death is a tragedy, a million deaths is a statistic,amp。quot。 and Mother Teresa said, amp。quot。If I look at the mass, I will never act. If I look at the one, I will.amp。quot。 Psychologists have explored this.