【正文】 t ypes of sent ence ar e used, what is thei r functi on? Sentence plexity: Do sent ences on whole have a simple or a pl ex str ucture? What i s t he aver age sentence length? Does plexity vary stri kingl y from one sentence to another? Is pl exit y mai nl y due to ( i) coordination, ( i) subordination, ( i ) juxt aposit ion of clauses or of other equi valent str uctures? I n what par ts of t he t ext does pl exit y tend t o occur ? clause t ypes: What types of clauses ar e favored—r elati ve clauses, adver bial clauses, or dif ferent types of nominal clauses? Are non fi ni te for ms monly used, and if so, of what ypes are t hey (i nf init ive, i ng f orm, ed form, ver bl ess st ruct ur e) ? What is t heir funct ion? Cl ause str ucture: Is there anything si gni ficant about clause el ements (eg fr equency of obj ects, adver bi al s, plements。 f or i nstance, t he ways sent ences ar e connected. Thi s is the internal ani zation of a t ext. Under context, roughly the material, ment al , personal, interact ional, social, inst ituti onal, cult ur al , and hi st or ical situation in which the discour se i s m ade, we consi der the external r el at ions of the lit er ar y text or a part of t he t ext, seing it as a discourse pr esupposing a social r el at ion between its par ti ci pants (author and r eader , character and charact er , character and reader, et c.) , and a sharing of knowl edge and asumpti ons by part icipants. Cohesion: Does t he t ext cont ai n l ogical or ot her links between sent ences (eg coordinating conjunct ions, l inking adver bi al s) , or does i t end to r epl y on i mpl icit connect ions of meaning? What sort of use i s made of cross reference by pr onouns (she, it, they, etc), by substi ut e forms ( do, so, etc) , or el lipsis? I s ther e any use made of el egant var iation—the avoidance of r epet it on by substi ut ion of a descr ipti ve phrase ( as “the ol d lawyer” substi ut es f or the repet it on of an earli er “Mr Jones”) ? Are meaning connections reinforced by repet it on of words and phr ases, or by repeat edly using wor ds f rom t he same semantic f ield? Context: Does the writ er addr ess the r eader dir ectl y, or t hr ough the wor ds or thought s of some f ictional character ? What li nguistic clues ( eg f ir st per son pr onouns I , me, my, mine) are t here of the addreser addressee relationship? What ati tude does t he aut hor imply t owards his/ her subject ? If a charact er ’s wor ds or thoughts ar e repr esent ed, is this done by di rect quotati on, or by some other method ( eg i ndir ect speech, f ree indi rect speech)? Are t here signi fi cant changes of style wit h respect to dif ferent per sons (nar rator or char acter) who is supposedly speaki ng or thinking the wor ds on the page? What i s the point of view of the story? Are t he f requent shi fts of point vi ew? I f so, i n whose voice is the nar rator speaking? Chapt er Seven Symbol What is sym bol? Symbol, in t he simplest sense, anything that stands for or r epresents something el se beyond it—usual y an i dea conventional ly asociated wit h it. Object s l ike fl ags and crosses can f unction symbolicaly。 it is, r at her, asymbol the poet or the wri ter adopt s f or t he purpose of his/her work, and it is t o be understood only in t he cont ext of t hat wor k. It dif ers fr om the ki nd of symbol il lust rated by t he f igure 3 because it is concr et e and speci fic. A poet or a wri ter uses s ymbols for the same reason he/ she uses simi les, met aphor s, and i mages, et c: they help t o expr ess his/ her meaning in a way that wil l appeal t o the senses and to t he emotions of the reader. Most symbols, in l it er at ur e and everyday li fe as wel l, posses a tr emendous condensing power. Their focusing on the relationships between t he visible ( audible) and what they suggest can ki ndl e i t into a si ngle i mpact. Of cour se, in li terary works, symbols, unl ike those in ordi nary l ife, usual y do not “stand for” any one meaning, nor f or anything absol ut el y def inite。 and words ar e also symbols. ( P. 218. Oxf or d Conci se Di ct ionary of Literary Terms .) A symbol i s a t hi ng t hat suggest s mor e than i ts li teral meani ng. It exists wi dely even in our daily l if e. Our l anguage i tsel f i s symbol . The dail y gr eti ngs indicat e t hat the passage of muni cati on i s open. Ring is a symbol of et er ni ty. The si gn of cr oss indi cates at onement. The Bi g Ben symbolizes London, t he Gr eat Wal l China. Rit uali st ic act s are symboli c. In chur ch weddi ng t he bri de i s handed over f rom t he f at her to the groom. Holy eat ing is symbolic of muni on, baptizing cleansi ng and rebi rt h. The r ai si ng and lower ing of a nat ional flag cer tainly suggest meani ngs larger t han t he acts themselves. And f inal ly toasti ng and shaki ng hands on f or mal or informal occasions. As r hetori cal device, symbol is dif ferent f rom metaphor, whi ch i s lit er al ly f al se but fi gur at ivel y true. Unli ke al egory, which repr esent s abst ract terms l ike “l(fā) ove” or “t ruth,” symbols are per ceptible object s. In l iterature almost anythi ng—par ti cular objects, characters, set ting, and acti ons—can be symboli c if the aut hor wishes to make i t so by eit her hi nting or i nsisti ng t hat the mat er ial means more than it lit er al ly does. Symbols are suggested through special t reat ment such as imager y, repet it on, connotati ve l anguage, or other art istic devi ces. In F. Scot t Fi tzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby, a huge pai r of bespectacl ed eyes st ar es acr oss a wil dnes of ash heaps fr om a bi lboar d adver ti sing the ser vi ces of an oculist. Repeat edly appear ing in t he story, t he bespectacled eyes e t o mean more t han si mpl y the availabili ty of eye examinat ion. A character i n the st or y par es it t o the eyes of G