【正文】 on the other hand, t he whit e whale is i nvested wit h di f er ent meani ngs for dif er ent cr ew members through t he handli ng of mater ials in t he novel. Simi larly, in Hemingway’s A Far ewel to Ar ms, rain, whi ch i s general y regarded as a symbol of lif e (especi al ly in spring), and which is a mil dl y annoying meteor ol ogical phenomenon i n the openi ng chapter, is conver ted into a symbol of death thr ough the uses to which it i s put i n the wor k. 3. Symbol s in f ict ion are i nanimate object s Often symbols we met in fi ct ion ar e inanimate object s. In Wi li am Faulker ’s “A Rose f or Em il y,” Mis Emi ly’s invisi bl e but percept ible watch ticking at the end of a golden chai n not only i ndicates t he pasage of t ime, but suggest t hat time pases wit hout even being noti ced by the watch’s owner. The golden chain t o whi ch i t i s at tached car ies uggesti ons of wealth and author it y. Other t hi ngs may also funct ion symbol ical ly. I n James Joyce’ s “Araby, ” the very name of the bazzar, Araby—the poetic name for Ar abia—suggests magi c, r omance, and The Arabian Nights。 in Er nest Hemingway’s “A Cl ean, Wel Lighted Pl ace” is not mer el y a caf233。 of tr ansit ve or intr ansi tive ver b const ruct ions)? Ar e ther e any unusual orderings (init ial adverbi als, fr onti ng of object or plement, etc)? Do speci al kinds of cl ause constr ucti on occur (such as t hose wi th preparator y it or there)? Noun phr ases: Are they relatively simple or pl ex? Wher e does t he pl exity l ie (i n pr emodif icat ion by adject ives, nouns, etc, or in postmodif icat ion by preposit ion by preposit ional phrases, r el at ive cl auses, etc)? Ver b phr ases: Ar e ther e any signi ficant departures fr om the use of t he simple past tense? For example, noti ce occurr ences and f unctions of the present t ense, of the progr essive aspect , of the per fect aspect, of modal auxil iaries. other phrase t ypes: Is there anything to be said about ot her phr ases types, such as preposi ti onal phr ases, adver b phr ases, adject ive phrases? Wor d cl asses: Havi ng alr eady considered maj or word clases, we may consider minor wor d cl asses (eg functi onal wor ds), such as preposit ons, conj unct ions, pr onouns, determiners, auxi liari es, interjections. Are par ti cular wor ds of these types used for part icul ar ef fect ( eg demonst rati ves such as this and t hat, negatives such as not, not hi ng)? Gener al : Note whether any general types of grammatical construction are used to special ef ect (eg par at ive or super lati ve constructions, coordinative or l isting constructions, par enthet ical constructions, interj ecti ons and aftert hought s as occur i n causal speech). And see to the number of li st and coordinat ions. Fi gures of Speech Here we consider t he f eatures whi ch are f or egrounded by vir tue of depart ing in some way fr om gener al nor ms of municat ion by means of the language code, for exampl e, exploit at ion of deviati ons fr om the li nguist ic code. Grammatical and l exical schemes ( foregr ounded r epet it ions of expresion) : Ar e ther e any cases of formal and st ruct ur al r epet it on (anaphora, paral el ism, etc) or of mi r or i mage pat er ns ( chiasm us)? I s t he r hetor ical ef fect of these one of antit hesis, r einf or cement , cli max, anti cli max, et c? Phonologi cal schemes: Are t here any phonologi cal pat er ns of rhyme, al lit er at ion, asonance, etc? Are there any sal ient r hythmical pat terns? Do vowel s and consonant sounds pater n or cluster in par ti cular ways? How do these phonol ogical f eatures interact wi th meaning? Tr opes ( foregrounded i r egularit ies of content): Are t here any obvious violati ons of or neologi sms fr om the li nguistic code? For exampl e, are there any neol ogisms (such as “por tent ous infants”) ? Ar e ther e any semant ic, synt acti c, phonological , or graphologi cal devi at i ons? Such devi at ions are oft en t he clue to special i nt er pr et at ions asociated wit h tr adit ional figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, par adox, and i rony. If such tropes occur, what ki nd of speci al interpr etati on i s involved (f or example, metaphor can be clasif ied as per sonif yi ng, animali zi ng, concr eti zi ng, synaest heti c, etc)? Cont ext and cohesion Here we take a l ook at f eatur es which ar e gener al y full y dealt with i n di scour se analysis. Under cohesion ways in which one part of a text i s linked t o another are consi dered。 they point, they hint, or, as Henr y James put i t, they cast long shadows. Symbol ism The t er m symbolism r ef er s to the use of symbols, or t o a set of related symbol s, whi ch i s one of t he devi ces that enr ich shor t ficti on and pensate f or i ts br iefnes in space. 2. There are t wo broad t ypes of li terary symbol s Symbol is general y acknowledged to be one of t he most f requent ly empl oyed devices in poet ry. I n wor ks of fi ct ion it is no less fr equent and no les important. The f act i s that , when a reader r eads a work of fi ct ion, his focus is most ly cast upon the pl ot , t he char acter, and the language used, so that t he symbols ar e automati caly backgrounded on the reader’ s part . But in some novels and stori es, t he symbol ism l ooms so l ar ge t hat the reader wi l fail to get a prehensi ve understandi ng of the wor k wit hout payi ng special at enti on t o the symbols. The Scarlet Leter by Nathani el Hawthor ne i s one of such works. The very ti tl e points to a double symbol: the scarlet leter A worn by Hester conveys a mult iple of senses which di f er great ly fr om what it li teraly stands f or , and the wor k eventualy develops into a test and cri tique of symbols themselves. Thomas Pynchon’s V. cont inues along much the same line, t esting an al phabeti cal symbol. Anot her exampl e is H