【正文】 m ost to t ypes of sent ence ar e used, what is thei r functi on? Sentence plexity: Do sent ences on whole have a simple or a pl ex str ucture? What i s t he aver age sentence length? Does plexity vary stri kingl y from one sentence to another? Is pl exit y mai nl y due to ( i) coordination, ( i) subordination, ( i ) juxt aposit ion of clauses or of other equi valent str uctures? I n what par ts of t he t ext does pl exit y tend t o occur ? clause t ypes: What types of clauses ar e favored—r elati ve clauses, adver bial clauses, or dif ferent types of nominal clauses? Are non fi ni te for ms monly used, and if so, of what ypes are t hey (i nf init ive, i ng f orm, ed form, ver bl ess st ruct ur e) ? What is t heir funct ion? Cl ause str ucture: Is there anything si gni ficant about clause el ements (eg fr equency of obj ects, adver bi al s, plements。 for inst ance, the ways sentences are connected. This is t he i nt er nal or ganizati on of a text. Under cont ext, roughl y the mater ial , mental, per sonal, interactional , social, insti ut ional , cul tural, and histori cal sit uati on i n whi ch t he discourse is made, we consider t he ext er nal relati ons of t he l iterary t ext or a par t of t he t ext, seing it as a discourse pr esupposing a social r el at ion between its par ti ci pants (aut hor and r eader , character a nd charact er, character and reader, et c.) , and a sharing of knowl edge and asumpti ons by part icipants. Cohesion: Does t he t ext cont ai n logi cal or other l inks bet wen sentences ( eg coor di nati ng conj unctions, li nking adverbials), or does it tend to reply on impli ci t connecti ons of meani ng? What sor t of use is made of cr oss r ef er ence by pronouns ( she, i t, they, etc) , by subst itute f or ms (do, so, etc), or eli psis? Is t here any use made of elegant variati on—t he avoi dance of repeti tion by substi tuti on of a descri pt ive phr ase (as “the old lawyer ” substi tutes for the r epeti tion of an ear lier “Mr Jones”)? Ar e meani ng connect ions r einf or ced by repeti tion of wor ds and phrases, or by r epeatedly usi ng words fr om the same semant ic fi el d? Cont ext: Does t he wr iter addres the reader di rect ly, or through t he words or t houghts of some fi ct ional char acter? What lingui st ic cl ues (eg fi rst person pronouns I, me, my, mi ne) ar e t her e of t he addr esseraddr essee relati onshi p? What at itude does the author i mpl y towar ds his/her subject? If a character ’s words or t houghts are r epresented, is t hi s done by direct quot at ion, or by some other method (eg indirect speech, free indirect speech)? Ar e ther e signif icant changes of st yl e wi th r espect o di f er ent persons (nar at or or char acter) who is supposedly speaki ng or thinking the wor ds on the page? What i s the point of view of t he story? Are t he f requent shi fts of point vi ew? I f so, i n whose voice is the nar rator speaki ng? Chapt er Seven Symbol What is symbol? Symbol, in t he simplest sense, anything that stands for or r epresents something el se beyond it—usual y an i dea conventional ly asociated wit h it. Object s l ike fl ags and crosses can f unction symbolicaly。 i t i s, rather, a symbol the poet or the wri ter adopts f or t he pur pose of his/her work, and it is to be understood only in t he cont ext of that work. It dif er s fr om the ki nd of symbol il lust rated by t he f igur e 3 because i t i s concr et e and speci fic. A poet or a wri ter uses symbol s for the same reason he/ she uses simil es, met aphor s, and images, etc: they help to expr ess hi s/ her meaning in a way t hat wil l appeal to t he senses and t o the emoti ons of t he r eader . Most symbols, i n li terature and ever yday l if e as wel, posses a t remendous condensi ng power. Thei r f ocusi ng on the relati onships bet wen the vi si bl e (audible) and what they suggest can kindle it into a singl e impact. Of course, in l iterary wor ks, symbols, unli ke t hose i n or di nar y lif e, usual ly do not “stand for” any one meaning, nor f or anyt hi ng absolutely def init e。 and words ar e also symbol s. ( P. 218. Oxf or d Concise Dictionar y of Lit er ar y Ter ms. ) A symbol is a thing that suggests more t han it s l it er al meaning. I t exist s widel y even i n our dai ly li fe. Our language it self is symbol. The dai ly greet ings i ndicate that he pasage of m unicat ion is open. Ri ng i s a symbol of eternity. The s ign of cross i ndicat es atonement . The Big Ben symbol izes London, the Great Wal Chi na. Ritualisti c acts are symbol ic. I n church wedding the br ide is handed over fr om the father t o the gr oom. Hol y eati ng i s symboli c of munion, bapt izing cl eansing and r ebir th. The raising and lowering of a national f lag certainly suggest meanings l ar ger than t he act s themsel ves. And fi nal y toasti ng and shaking hands on f or mal or i nf ormal occasi ons. As rhetorical devi ce, symbol is dif erent fr om met aphor , which is l iteral y false but figurati vely t rue. Unlike alegor y, which r epr esents abstr act terms li ke “l(fā)ove” or “t ruth,” symbols ar e percept ible obj ects. I n li terature almost anything—par ticular object s, charact er s, set ing, and act i ons—can be symbol ic if t he aut hor wishes to make it so by ei ther hinti ng or insi st ing that the mat er ial means more t han it li teral y does. Symbol s ar e suggest ed t hr ough special tr eatment such as i magery, r epeti ion, connot at ive language, or ot her ar tisti c devices. In F. Scott Fitzger al d’ s novel The Great Gatsby, a huge pair of bespectacled eyes stares across a wi ldnes of ash heaps f rom a bil board advert isng t he services of an oculi st . Repeatedl y appeari ng i n the stor y, the bespect acled eyes e to mean mor e than simply the avail abil ity of eye examination. A char acter in the story pares i t to the eyes of G