【正文】 on the other hand, t he whit e whale i s i nvest ed wit h dif er ent meanings f or dif ferent crew members thr ough the handl ing of materials i n the novel . Simi larl y, in Hemingway’s A Far ewel to Ar ms, rain, whi ch i s general y regar ded as a symbol of li fe (especi al ly in spring), and which is a mil dl y annoying meteor ol ogical phenomenon in the opening chapter, is converted into a symbol of death t hr ough t he uses to which it is put in t he work. 3. Symbols in ficti on are inani mat e obj ects Oft en symbols we meet in f icti on are i nani mat e objects. I n Wil liam Faul ker’ s “A Rose f or Emi ly,” Miss Emily’s i nvisible but per ceptibl e watch ti cking at he end of a gol den chain not onl y indicates the passage of ti me, but suggest s that ti me passes wi thout even being not iced by the wat ch’s owner . The golden chai n to which it is atached car ries suggest ions of wealt h and aut hori ty. Ot her things may also f uncti on symbolicaly. In James Joyce’s “Araby,” t he ver y name of t he bazar , Ar aby—the poeti c name for Arabi a—suggest s magic, r omance, and The Arabi an Ni ghts 。 i n Er nest Hemingway’s “A Clean, Wel l Li ghted Place” is not merely a caf 233。 of tr ansit ve or intr ansi tive ver b const ruct ions)? Ar e ther e any unusual orderings (init ial adverbi als, fr onti ng of object or plement, etc)? Do speci al kinds of cl ause constr ucti on occur (such as t hose wi th preparator y it or there)? Noun phr ases: Ar e t hey relati vely simple or plex? Where does the plexi ty li e (i n pr emodif icati on by adj ecti ves, nouns, etc, or in pos tmodifi cati on by preposit on by preposit onal phrases, relati ve clauses, et c) ? Ver b phrases: Ar e ther e any si gnif icant depar tures fr om the use of t he simple past ense? For example, noti ce occurr ences and f unct ions of the pr esent tense, of the pr ogr essi ve aspect , of the perf ect aspect, of modal auxil iar ies. other phr ase types: I s ther e anything to be said about ot her phrases types, such as pr eposi tional phr ases, adver b phrases, adj ecti ve phrases? Wor d cl asses: Havi ng alr eady considered maj or word clases, we may consi der minor word classes ( eg functi onal words), such as preposi ti ons, conjunct ions, pr onouns, det er miner s, auxil iari es, i nt er ject ions. Ar e par ticular words of t hese t ypes used f or par ti cular ef fect (eg demonst ratives uch as this and t hat, negat ives such as not, not hi ng)? Gener al : Note whet her any general t ypes of grammat ical const ruct ion ar e used to speci al efect ( eg parati ve or super lative const ruct ions, coor di native or l isting constructions, par enthet ical constructions, interj ecti ons and after thought s as occur i n causal speech). And see to the number of lists and coor dinat ions. Fi gures of Speech Here we consider the features whi ch are f or egrounded by vir tue of depart ing in some way fr om gener al nor ms of municat ion by means of t he l anguage code, for exam pl e, exploit ati on of deviati ons fr om the lingui st ic code. Grammat ical and l exical schemes ( foregr ounded r epet it ons of expr essi on) : Ar e ther e any cases of f ormal and str uct ur al repet it on ( anaphora, paraleli sm, etc) or of mi r or image pat er ns ( chiasmus)? Is t he r hetori cal ef fect of t hese one of antit hesi s, reinfor cement, climax, anticli max, et c? Phonologi cal schemes: Are there any phonologi cal pat er ns of rhyme, al lit er at ion, asonance, etc? Are there any sal ient rhythmical pat terns? Do vowels and consonant sounds patern or cl uster in par ti cular ways? How do these phonol ogical f eatures interact wit h meaning? Tr opes ( foregrounded i r egul ar it ies of content ): Are t here any obvi ous vi ol at ions of or neol ogisms fr om the li nguist ic code? For exampl e, ar e ther e any neologisms (such as “por tent ous infant s”)? Ar e ther e any semant ic, syntactic, phonological , or gr aphol ogi cal devi at ions? Such deviations ar e of ten the cl ue t o special interpretations associated wi th t radi tional fi gur es of speech such as met aphor , metonymy, synecdoche, paradox, and ir ony. I f such tr opes occur , what kind of special i nt er pretation is i nvolved ( for example, met aphor can be cl assi fi ed as personi fying, ani mal izing, concretizing, synaesthet ic, etc)? Context and cohesi on Her e we t ake a look at features which are generaly f ul ly dealt wit h in discourse anal ysis. Under cohesi on ways i n whi ch one part of a t ext is li nked to another are consider ed。 they point, they hi nt , or, as Henry James put it , t hey cast l ong shadows. Symbolism The term symboli sm refers to t he use of symbol s, or t o a set of related symbols, whi ch i s one of t he devices t hat enri ch shor t f icti on and pensate f or it s br iefness in space. 2. There are two broad t ypes of li terary symbol s Symbol is generaly acknowledged t o be one of t he most fr equentl y empl oyed devi ces in poetr y. I n wor ks of ficti on i t is no l ess fr equent and no l ess important. The fact i s that , when a r eader reads a work of ficti on, hi s focus is most ly cast upon the pl ot , t he character, and the language used, so that the symbols ar e automaticaly backgr ounded on the reader’ s part . But i n some novels and stories, t he symbolism l ooms so l ar ge t hat the reader wi l fail to get a pr ehensive under st andi ng of the work wit hout payi ng special at enti on t o the symbol s. The Scarlet Let er by Nat haniel Hawthor ne i s one of such works. The very t itl e points t o a doubl e symbol: the scarl et let er A worn by Hester conveys a mult iple of senses which dif er great ly f rom what it li teral y stands f or , and the wor k event ual y develops into a test and cri ti que of sym bols themselves. Thomas Pynchon’s V. cont i nues along much the same li ne, test in