【正文】 eting skilled fighters but have confidence in our own skills, if we are not afraid of being beaten, then our preparation and conduct of the negotiation will not need to be based on preparing our defenses. Our preparations now can be restricted to obtaining a clear definition of purpose and aims, without yet going hard on our opening bids. 正式的文化傾向于有組織的等級制度，在地位和權(quán)力方面有主要影響。 正式文化的地區(qū)有：歐亞的大多數(shù)地區(qū)， 地中海地區(qū)和阿拉伯世界 ,拉丁美洲。相比之下，非正式的文化更注重平等的組織，在地位和權(quán)利方面沒有太大影響。 不同地區(qū)的人安排和利用時間的方式不同，在硬性時間社會，守時是重要的，計劃和議程都是固定的，并且商業(yè)會議很少會被打斷。 當(dāng)一個來擁有非正式文化的談判人員遇到一個擁有更正式文化的同行時，很多重要的談判失敗了，因為那些文化差異已經(jīng)被搬到了談判桌上。軟性時間文化有著明顯的差別，人們很少嚴厲地強調(diào)守時從而好多事情都沒有在預(yù)定的期限內(nèi)完成。另一方面，那些擁有非正式文化的談判者可能會覺得那些正式的同行沉悶、疏遠、自負、或者傲慢。 硬性時間文化的國家有： 北歐和日耳曼歐洲、北美、日本。 如果都能意識到不同的商業(yè)談判行為都是不同價值觀的結(jié)果，而不是個人特性引起的，那么，這樣的誤會就可以避免。 III. Influences of Different Bussiness Culture on Different Stages of Negotiation A. Prenegotiation It is from this stage on that both sides begin to understand one another’s needs and evaluate the benefits of entering into the process of negotiation. Both sides now gather as much 13 information as possible on each other, like the operating environment, involvement of other parties, influencers, petitors and the infrastructure. The main issue here is to define the problem to be jointly solved, for it will both reflect each other’s expectations and is necessary to get mitment from each other, which will then help to achieve a problemsolving situation. To be environmental factors include politics, religious belief, law regulations, business conventions, social customs, financial state, infrastructures as well as climate. All these elements will directly or indirectly influence the negotiation. Information gathering will to some extent determine the success and failure of the negotiation. 1. Scheduling the First Meeting The first impression each side makes will most likely have a major effect on the style, progress, and eventual oute of the negotiations. Scheduling the first round of meetings is an important task for both side and should be handled in a manner that preserves the professionalism of all the attendees. Clothing Related to weather, health, and negotiation style is the issue of proper clothing. Research will supply visitors with the information they need to look the part and feel at ease during negotiations. Dry cleaning and laundry needs should be reviewed before travel, as being rumpled, dirty, or underdressed can undermine your position during important discussions. Negotiation team members should get some information on the climatic and cultural clothing requirements prior to departure. Anyhow what really matters is keeping it simple and appropriate. Dining Some business cultures are especially keen on linking business meetings with dining. So arrive prepared to have new dinning experiences. Try a little of what is offered and avoid overindulging from cup or plate. Don’t let the dinner table keep you form making it to the negotiation table. Hosts should be briefed on any special culinary needs of visitors. These needs may be religious or philosophy based. It is the visitors’ obligation to inform their hosts well in advance of arrival that special diets may be required. Holidays and Religions 14 Negotiation should be planned in accordance with events occurring at the host location as well as the needs of visitors. Inviting a Beijing pany to San Francisco during the Lunar New year period will be unwise. Only by monitoring the religious and traditional holidays of all attendees can negotiations proceed without distraction or interruption. Religious requirements of negotiators must also be considered. Religious biases can be as destructive to discussions as racial, sexual, or cultural meetings are scheduled, both sides should be briefed on any special needs. Gifts Gift exchange among business associates is a standard practice in many cultures and is not to be confused with bribery. If negotiations are taking place in such a culture, visitors must prepare accordingly. Because any neglect of this practice shows a lack of understanding. Keeping the gifts small, for transport reasons, and preferably pany related. Do not, under circumstances, offer gifts produced or purchased in the host pany’s market. Issues and positions Any information upon which there is disagreement can be organized into the negotiation issues. That is to say that the issues are the things on which one side takes an affirmative position and the other a negative position. Issues should be pragmatic, for it is to make a definite judgment about unrealistic issues. It is important that we should try to negotiate rather than our demands. Our demands are only a onesolution approach to the problems. There may be other solutions. In the course of our negotiation, we may want to change position. When the other side makes a mitment or sets a limit, one way of handling it would be to ignore it or not prehend it. Another might be to make casual conversation or a joke so that the seriousness of it may be lost. Humor can serve a vital function in negotiations. It is said that your bargaining position should conceal as well as reveal, and as negotiation continue, concessions alternate from each side. A motivating factor to cause such reactions is citing principles and precedents for the other side to work with. Each position is the sum of all the issues involved. Some negotiations have many issues. Some issues are broader than others. With the resolution of the broader and more important issues, some of the minor ones seem to disappear or be resolved. As new facts are developed in 15 factfinding and negotiation, the posture that one takes on an issue may change, and so will the position change. B. Facetoface Negotiation the Ways to Influence the Deal 1. GreetingsOpen the Meeting Goo